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CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN 

CHINA 


A  Study  made  by  an  Educational  Commission  representing 
THE  Mission  Boards  and  Societies  conducting  work  in  China 


Committee  of  Reference  and  Counsel 

OF  THE  Foreign  Missions  Conference  of  North  America 

25  MADISON  AVENUE,  NEW  YORK  CITY 


Copyrighted,  1922 

Committee  of   Reference   and   Counsel   of   the 

Foreign  Missions  Conference  of  North  America,  Inc. 


The  Report  of  the  China  Educational 
Commission  has  not  been  adopted  by  the 
Committee  of  Reference  and  Counsel  of 
the  Foreign  Missions  Conference  of  North 
America  nor  by  the  Standing  Committee 
of  the  Conference  of  Missionary  Societies 
in  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  nor  by  any 
Board  or  Society  responsible  for  educa- 
tional work  in  China. 


Education 
Library 

L-A 


C^ 


CONTENTS 

I.     The   Origin  of   the  Commission §§          i-6 

II.     The  Personnel  of  the  Commission 7-9 

III.  The  Travels  of  the  Commission 10-13 

IV.  The  Scope  of  the  Work  of  the  Commission       ....  14-16 
V.     What  is  Christian  Education? 17 

VI.     The  Challenge  of  China  and  the  Outlook  for  the  Chris- 
tian   Movement 18-24 

PART  I.     THE  PRESENT  STATUS  OF  EDUCATION   IN   CHINA 

I.     Government  Education §§     25-42 

II.     Christian  Education — Protestant 43-48 

III.  Christian  Education — Roman   Catholic 49-59 

IV.  Privately     Supported     Education — Christian     and     Non- 

Christian        60-63 

PART  II.     THE  PLACE,  PURPOSE,  AND  SCOPE  OF  CHRISTIAN 
EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

I.     The  Aim  of  the  Missionary  Enterprise §§           64 

II.     The  Place  of  Education  in  the  Missionary  Enterprise   .  §§     65-67 

III.  The  Permanence  of   Christian  Education  in  China    .      .  68-76 

IV.  The  Specific  and  Immediate  Task  of  Christian  Education  77-83 
V.     The  Scope  of   Christian  Education 84-100 

VI.     The  Organization  of  Christian  Education 100-114 

VII.    The  Heart  of  the  Problem 115-118 

PART  III.     SPECIFIC  TYPES  AND  GRADES  OF  EDUCATION 

Chapter  I.    Elementary  Education 

I.  The  Elementary  School  and  the  Christian   Commimity  §§  119-121 

II.  Christian  Elementary  Schools  and  the  Chinese   System 

of  Public  Education 122-125 

HI.     The  Number  and  Distribution  of  Christian  Elementary 

Schools        126-130 

IV.    Types  of   School 131-135 

V.     The    Training 136-140 

iii 


825653 


iv  CONTENTS 

VI.  The    Teacher 141-145 

VII.  Organization   and   Control 146-151 

VIII.  Finance 152-155 

IX.  Summary  of  Recommendations 155 

Chapter  II.     Secondary  Education 

I.  The  Specific  Function  and  Central  Importance  of  Chris- 
tian Middle  Schools §§  156-159 

II.  General  Statement  of  the   Situation  and  Outlook    .      .  160-164 

III.  Coeducation 165 

IV.  Occupational    Training    for    Boys 166 

V.  Types  of  Schools  to  be  Developed  for  Boys  ....  167-173 

VI.  Middle  Schools  for  Girls 174-178 

VII.  The  Improvement  of  the  Christian  Middle  Schools  .      .  179-182 

VIII.  Middle  School  Objectives  and  Curricula 183-193 

IX^  Summary  of   Recommendations 193 

Chapter  III.    Collegiate  Education 

I.  The  Genesis  of  the  Christian  College §§  194-195 

II.  Recent   Developments 196-201 

III.  Constructive  Proposals 202-214 

IV.  Regional    Recommendations 215-223 

V.  Conclusion 224 

VI.  Summary  of  Recommendations 224 

Chapter  IV.    The   Education    of   Teachers    and   the   Ad- 
vancement OF  Education 

I.  The  Essentials  of  an  Effective  System  of  Schools  .      .  §§         226 

II.  The   Present   Status   of    Christian   Schools   in   China    .  .       227-232 

III.  The   Training   of    Teachers 233-234 

IV.  Preparation  of  Primary  School  Teachers 235-239 » 

V.  Preparation  of   Middle   School  Teachers 240-244 

VI.  Teachers'  Certificates  and  Degrees 245 

VII.  The  Training  of  Supervisors  and  Principals  ....  246-250 

VIII.  The  Advancement  of  Education 251-258 

IX.  The  Training  of  Teachers  in  Service 259-262 

X.  The  Training  of  Foreign  Teachers 263-265 

XL  Summary  of   Recommendations 265 

Chapter  V.    Theological  Education 

I.  The   History  of   Theological   Education §§  266-268 

II.  The  Present  Situation 269-273 

III.  Present  Problems  Stated 274-275 

IV.  The    Solution   of   the   Problem 276-290 

V.  Religious    Education 291 


CONTENTS  V 

t--  VI.     Education   for   Social  Workers 292 

VII.     Summary  of   Recommendations 292 

Chapter  VI.     Medical  Education 

I.     History  and  Present  Status  of  Medical  Education   .      .  §§  293-301 
II.     Relation  of  the  Medical   Schools  and  Hospitals  to  the 

Christian   Movement 302-304 

HI.     Scope  of   Medical  and  Pre-Medical   Education    .      .      .  305-307 

■HV.     Schools  of  Pharmacy 308 

V.     Public  Health  Education 309-311 

VI.     Hospitals  with  Educational  Features 312-317 

VII.     Future   Developments 318-319 

VIII.     Specific    Recommendations 320-333 

IX.     Women's  Medical  Education 334-339 

X.     Schools  of    Dentistry 340-34I 

XI.     Summary  of   Recommendations 341 

Chapter  VII.    Agricultural  Education  :  Its  Place  in  the 
System  of  Christian  Education  in  China 

I.     Agricultural  Work  Under  Way §§  342-343 

II.     Evidences   of   an   Increasing   Interest ,.      .  344 

III.  Shall  the  Missions  Increase  Agricultural  Work  ?  .      .      .  345-346 

IV.  Agricultural  Education  and  the  Chinese  Church  .      .      .  347-348 
V.     The  Farm  Villages  and  the  Kingdom 349-350 

VI.     The  Task  of  Agricultural  Education 3Si 

VII.     What  is  the   Rural   Problem   in  China? 352 

VIII.     A   Programme  of  Education  in  Agriculture  under   the 

Auspices  of  Christian  Institutions 353-368 

IX.     The  Main  Objectives  of  the  Agricultural  Enterprise   .  369 

X.     Summary  of  Recommendations 369 

Chapter  VIII.    Education  in  the  Social  Application  of 
Christianity 

I.     Introduction §§370-372 

II.     The  Elements  of  the  Problem _.      .      .  373-375 

HI.     Proposals        27(>-277 

Chapter  IX.    Education  in  Lav^^  and  Political  Science 

I.    Law §§37^385 

II.     Political   Science 386 

Chapter  X.     Industrial  Education  and  Engineering 

I.     Industrial   Education §§  387-401 

II.     Schools    of    Engineering 402-408 

Chapter   XI.    Adult   Education §§  408-418 

Chapter  XII.    The  Education  of  Women 

I.     Introduction §           419 


vi  CONTENTS 

II.     Early  History 420 

III.  The  Beginnings  of  Modern  Education  of  Women   .      .  §§  421-423 

IV.  Present  Situation:  Proportionate  Provision  for  Educa- 

tion of  Boys  and  Girls 424-434 

V.     Problems  in   Girls'    Schools 435-438 

VI.     The  Part  Which  Women  Will  Play  in  the  New  China  439-444 

VII.     Recommendations    Concerning    Vocational    Education    .  445-453 

VIII.     Education  of  Adult  Women 454-455 

IX.     Higher    Education 456-458 

X.     Slimmary  of  Recommendations 458 

Chapter  XIII.     Religious  Education 

I.     Introduction §§  459-461 

II.     Character  Building 462-473 

III.  Religious  Education  through  the  Church  Service  .      .      .  474-480 

IV.  Religious  Education  in  Week  Day   Schools    ....  481-490 
V.     Religious  Education  in  the  Home 491-497 

Chapter  XIV.    The  Education  of  Writers §§  498-500 

Chapter  XV.    The  Educational  Work  of  the  Christian 
Associations 

I.    The  General  Scope  and  Purpose  of  Their  Work   .     .  §§         501 

II.     Physical  and  Health  Education 502-503 

III.  General  Education 504-506 

IV.  Religious    Education 507-510 

Chapter  XVI.    Physical  akd  Health   Education    .     .     .  §§511-514 

Chapter  XVII.     Schools  for  the  Physically  Defective   .  §§  515-518 

Chapter   XVIII.     Schools   for   Foreign   Children      .     .     .  §§  519-527 


PART  IV.     SPECIAL  PROBLEMS  OF  EDUCATION 

Chapter  I.    The  Preparation  of  the  Missionary  for  Edu- 
cational Work 

I.     The    Present    Situation §§  528-532 

II.     Recommendations      .      .      .     • 533-545 

Chapter     II.    International     Cooperation     in     Christian 

Education §§54^-550 

Chapter  III.    The  Conservation  of  Christian  Personali- 
ties TO  the  Church §§  551-553 

Chapter  IV.     Research  as  a  Factor  in  Education   .     .     .     §§  554-559 


CONTENTS  vii 

Chapter  V.     The  Language  Problem  in  Education 

I.     The   Problem   for  the  Missionary §§  558-559 

II.     The  Problem  of  English 560 

III.  The   Problem  of   Books 561 

IV.  The   Problem   of   a   Unified    Speech 562 

Chapter  VI.     Summer  Schools,  Short  Courses,  and  Win- 
ter Institutes 

I.    For    Teachers §§563-568 

II.     For   Preachers  and   Other   Religious   Workers    .      .      .  569 

III.     Short  Courses  for  Various  Groups  of  Adults   .     .     .  570-571 

Chapter  VII.    School  and  College  Libraries 

I.     Development   of    the    Reading    Habit §§  572-573 

II.     Reference    Libraries 574-575 

III.  Librarians 576 

IV.  Library  Extension  Work 577-578 

Chapter  VIII.    The  Architecture  of  School  Buildings    .  §§579-580 

PART    V.     SUMMARY    OF   GENERAL   PRINCIPLES    AND    REC- 
OMMENDATIONS 

I.     The  Purpose  and   Spirit  of   Christian  Education    .     .  §§  582-592 

II.     Principles  of   Extension  and   Limitation 593-603 

III.  Specific   Types   of    Education 604-616 

IV.  Resources,  Organization,  and  Support 617-626 


PART  VI.    REGIONAL  RECOMMENDATIONS 

Chapter  I.     Recommendations  That  Pertain  to  All  Regions 

I.     Elementary  Education §§  629-632 

II.     Secondary    Education 633-637 

III.     Higher    Education 638-640 

Chapter  II.     Recommendations  by  Regions 

I.     North    China §§  642-644 

II.    East    China 645-648 

III.  Central    China 649-652 

IV.  Fukien 653-656 

V.     South  China         . 657-661 

VI.     West  China 662-665 

VII.     National 666-667 


viii  CONTENTS 

PART  VII.    THE  COST  OF  EDUCATION  AND  THE  RELATIVE 
PRIORITY   OF  EDUCATIONAL   ENTERPRISES 

Chapter  I.    The  Cost  of  Various  Types  of  School 

I.    Preliminary    Observations §§  668-669 

.  II.     Specific  Studies  and  Estimates 670-684 

III.     Implications    of    this    Study 685-689 

Chapter    II.     Recommendations    Classified    According    to 
Expense  Involved 
I.     Developments  which  can  be  made  without   Increase  in 

Appropriations §§  692-700 

II.     Developments  which  can  be  made  by  Moderate  Increase 

in    Appropriations 701-707 

III.     Developments    which    will    involve    Largely    Increased 

Expenditures 708-716 

Chapter  III.  Recommendations  Involving  Large  Expense, 
Classified  According  to  the  Order  of 
Urgency §§7i7-7i^ 

APPENDICES 

I.    Statistical  Tables 

II.  Findings  of  the  Seventh  Annual  Meeting  of  the 
National  Associated  Educational  Associations 
(Chinese) 

INDEX 


FOREWORD 

The  publication  of  the  Report  of  the  China  Educational  Com- 
mission marks,  in  one  sense,  the  completion  of  an  undertaking 
which  was  begun  in  191 7  (See  Introduction).  In  a  more  vital 
sense,  it  marks  the  beginning  of  a  new  and  very  important  develop- 
ment in  the  history  of  Christian  education  in  China.  From  this 
time  on,  as  a  result  of  the  studies  of  the  Commission,  the  forces 
concerned  with  Christian  education  in  China  have  before  them  a 
statement  of  principles  which,  in  the  judgment  of  careful  and 
sympathetic  students,  should  underlie  all  future  progress  and  a 
forecast  of  opportunities  and  ideals  which  should  arouse  much 
latent  energy. 

It  will  equally  be  the  obligation  of  the  several  Boards  and  Socie- 
ties responsible  for  the  support  and  administration  of  Christian 
education  in  China  to  give  careful  heed  to  the  matured  conclusions 
of  the  experts  who  were  set  apart  to  make  this  study.  The  Report 
may  either  lie  undisturbed  in  their  archives,  useful  for  the  future 
historian  of  education  in  China,  or  it  may  become  a  directive 
factor  in  the  educational  system  of  China,  influencing  powerfully 
the  intellectual  life  of  the  Chinese  Church  and  of  the  Chinese 
people. 

It  does  not  follow  that  the  specific  recommendations  made  by 
the  Commission  must  necessarily  be  adopted.  This  remarkable 
study  will  accomplish  its  purpose  if  it  leads  the  forces  responsible 
for  Christian  education  in  China  (that  is,  the  Boards  at  home, 
missionaries  on  the  field  and  the  Chinese  leaders)  to  lay  hold  of 
the  principles  which  lie  at  the  foundation  of  the  permanent  educa- 
tional progress  of  the  Chinese  people  and  to  go  forward  with  the 
same  spirit  of  unity  which  has  dominated  the  work  of  the  Com- 
mission to  make  an  adequate  educational  Christian  programme  for 
China. 


X  FOREWORD 

In  commending  tliis  study  of  Christian  education  in  China  to 
the  earnest  consideration  and  study  of  the  Boards  and  Societies, 
we  desire  to  point  out  that : 

1.  The  Report  has  not  been  adopted  by  the  Committee  of 
Reference  and  Counsel  of  the  Foreign  Missions  Conference  of 
North  America  nor  by  any  Board  or  Society  responsible  for  educa- 
tional work  in  China.  It  is  sent  out,  just  as  the  Commission  has 
presented  it,  as  the  matured  conclusions  of  a  body  of  educational 
experts  appointed  by  the  agencies  concerned  to  make  this  study. 

2.  The  work  of  the  Commission  was  very  thorough-going.  It 
represents  a  first-hand  study  of  conditions  on  the  part  of  the 
individual  members  of  the  Commission,  and  conclusions  which  are 
the  result  of  extended  conferences  with  the  leaders  in  China,  both 
Chinese  and  foreign,  leaders  who  represented  not  only  the  Chris- 
tian forces,  but  also  the  Government. 

3.  The  Commission  was  distinctly  international.  On  it  served 
representatives  of  China,  of  Canada,  of  Britain,  and  of  the  United 
States. 

4.  The  Commission  included  men  and  women  of  long  experience 
in  educational  work,  not  only  as  teachers  but  as  administrators. 

5.  The  Commission  was  entirely  unhampered  in  its  work  by 
conditions  involved  in  its  appointment  or  support. 

The  sincere  thanks  of  the  Committee  of  Reference  and  Counsel 
of  the  Foreign  Missions  Conference  are  extended 

1.  To  the  members  of  the  Commission.  We  appreciate  what 
it  means  for  men  and  women  carrying  heavy  responsibilities  to 
leave  their  work  for  a  large  part  of  the  academic  year  and  to  give 
months  of  time  to  laborious  work  and  travel  in  China.  It  is  fitting 
that  special  mention  be  made  to  the  remarkable  contribution  made 
by  Professor  Burton,  the  chairman  of  the  Commission.  To  carry 
to  a  successful  conclusion  such  an  undertaking  required  unusual 
gifts  of  leadership.  The  Christian  forces  of  China  and  the  Boards 
at  home  are  in  an  unusual  degree  indebted  to  him. 

2.  To  the  Boards  of  Trustees  of  institutions  which  granted 
leaves  of  absence  to  important  officers  so  that  they  might  make 
this  study.     In  a  remarkable  way  the  action  taken  by  these  Boards 


FOREWORD  xi 

shows  breadth  of  vision  on  the  part  of  their  members  and  a 
recognition  on  their  part  of  a  sense  of  responsibiHty,  not  only  for 
the  affairs  of  their  own  institutions,  but  also  for  education  in  the 
largest  sense  and  especially  in  China. 

3.  To  the  organizations  mentioned  on  page  3,  whose  gifts  of 
money  provided  the  funds  necessary  to  make  the  work  of  the 
Commission  possible.  We  would  especially  emphasize  here  that 
no  conditions  were  attached  to  any  of  these  gifts.  The  Committee 
of  Reference  and  Counsel  was  left  free  in  organizing  the  Com- 
mission and  the  Commission  was  left  free  from  any  hampering 
conditions  in  the  work  it  was  set  to  do. 

The  Committee  of  Reference  and  Counsel  would  do  violence  to 
its  sense  of  appreciation  did  it  fail  to  make  especial  mention  of  the 
large  part  taken  by  its  Senior  Secretary,  Mr.  Fennell  P.  Turner,  in 
the  organization  and  carrying  to  so  successful  a  conclusion  this  im- 
portant Commission.  This  burden  naturally  fell  upon  him.  He 
saw  from  the  beginning  the  possibility  of  great  usefulness  to  the 
Missionary  Enterprise  of  the  Church  in  China  through  such  a 
Commission,  and  he  freely  gave  from  his  large  resources  of  ex- 
perience and  acquaintance  in  its  organization  and  promotion.  He 
was  invaluable  to  the  Committee  in  the  selection  and  the  securing  of 
a  Chairman  for  so  delicate  and  difficult  a  task,  in  the  building  up 
of  the  membership  of  the  Commission  involving  on  his  part  a  wide 
and  discerning  acquaintance,  and,  on  the  part  of  the  members, 
prolonged  separation  from  large  and  important  educational  and 
ecclesiastical  responsibilities,  and  in  the  financing  and  arranging 
for  extensive  travel,  all  of  which  drew  heavily  upon  his  unusual 
reserves  of  experience  and  judgment  which  have  been  so  well 
vindicated  in  the  results. 

The  Report  is  commended  to  those  who  carry  the  responsibility, 
not  only  for  conserving  what  has  already  been  accomplished  toward 
building  up  a  system  of  Christian  education  in  China,  but  also 
for  translating  into  realities  these  proposals  for  the  development 
of  a  system  of  Christian  education  adequate  to  meet  the  needs 
of  the  Chinese  people  and  worthy  to  represent  the  Christian 
forces  at  work  in  China. 


xii  FOREWORD 

It  is  our  hope  that  the  plans  and  programmes  adopted  by  the 
Boards  as  a  result  of  this  study  will  be  in  harmony  with  the  funda- 
mental principles  which  underlie  its  recommendations.  It  would 
be  unfortunate  if  those  who  are  responsible  for  Christian  education 
in  China  should  fail  to  realize  that  the  opportunity  has  at  last  been 
attained  to  put  into  effect  a  comprehensive  and  adequate  scheme  of 
Christian  education  for  all  the  Chinese  people. 

Wm.  I.  Chamberlain,  Chairman 
Committee   of  Reference   and   Counsel  of  the 
Foreign  Missions  Conference  of  North  America 


PREFACE 

The  instructions,  under  which  the  Commission  whose  report 
is  contained  in  this  volume  undertook  its  work,  required  it  to 
study  all  types  and  grades  of  education  as  carried  on  in  all  parts 
of  China,  and  on  the  basis  of  such  study  to  suggest  to  the  Chris- 
tian forces  engaged  in  educational  work  in  China  a  policy  for 
the  future.  The  magnitude  of  this  task,  the  fact  that  it  neces- 
sarily had  to  do  not  with  the  past  but  with  the  future,  and  the 
explicit  instructions  to  the  Commission,  relieved  it  of  the  duty 
of  passing  qualitative  judgment  on  individual  schools. 

i\ny  one  who  reads  the  Report  through  will  discover  that  there 
is  considerable  repetition.  This  is  in  a  large  part,  at  least,  inten- 
tional. We  have  assumed  that  many  of  those  who  use  the  volume 
will  wish  to  find  in  one  place  all  that  the  Commission  has  to  say 
on  general  topics,  such  as  elementary  education,  and  also  in  one 
place  all  the  recommendations  respecting  a  given  region.  It  has 
also  seemed  probable  that  some  who  consult  the  volume  will  wish 
to  find  a  condensed  statement  of  the  general  conclusions  of  the 
Commission.  With  a  view  to  serving  the  convenience  of  these 
several  classes  of  readers,  we  have  permitted  ourselves  whatever 
repetition  seemed  necessary  to  make  each  Part  complete  in  itself. 

We  venture  to  call  particular  attention  to  the  Summary  of  Gen- 
eral Principles  and  Recommendations  in  Part  VI.  We  are  aware 
that  many  of  our  recommendations  have  already  been  put  into 
effect  more  or  less  widely.  We  have  aimed  rather  at  comprehen- 
sion than  at  novelty. 

Our  grateful  acknowledgments  are  due  to  the  many  persons 
in  England,  America,  Japan,  and  especially  in  China,  who  have 

xiii 


xiv  PREFACE 

generously  assisted  us  in  our  work.  The  list  of  individuals  is  far 
too  long  to  permit  printing  here.  It  includes  educators  and  mis- 
sionary administrators  in  the  British  Empire,  the  United  States, 
Japan  and  China,  officials  of  the  Chinese  government,  directors  and 
teachers  in  government  and  private  schools,  and  many  members  of 
the  Christian  community  in  China,  both  Chinese  and  foreign. 

Everywhere  we  have  had  a  most  courteous  reception  and  valu- 
able assistance  from  the  representatives  of  Chinese  government 
education,  both  national  and  provincial,  and  we  desire  here  to  put 
on  record  our  appreciation  of  their  attitude.  Both  when  they  have 
criticized  and  when  they  have  praised,  it  has  been  with  an  evident 
desire  to  help  make  Christian  education  a  valuable  part  of  the 
educational  resources  of  China. 

Naturally  we  have  drawn  most  heavily  on  the  time  and 
resources  of  the  members  of  the  Christian  communities.  We  have 
visited  their  schools,  called  them  into  conferences,  asked  them  to 
make  long  journeys  in  order  to  give  us  their  advice  and  help.  To 
all  our  requests  they  have  responded  most  patiently  and  helpfully. 
To  them  all  we  return  our  hearty  thanks.  Our  thanks  are  due  also 
to  those  who  have  furnished  us  data  for  our  work.  We  have  used 
freely  statistical  material  drawn  from  various  sources,  but  especi- 
ally from  the  forthcoming  Survey  of  China  in  preparation  by  the 
Continuation  Committee. 

We  count  it  a  matter  of  special  congratulation  that  at  the  time 
of  our  visit  Professor  Paul  Monroe  was  in  China  studying  educa- 
tional adjustments  and  advising  with  Chinese  educational  leaders 
with  reference  to  the  betterment  of  the  national  system.  The 
opportunity  of  repeated  conference  with  him  has  been  a  great 
advantage  to  us. 

The  members  of  the  Commission  who  came  from  overseas 
desire  to  place  on  record  their  sense,  greatly  deepened  by  their 
stay  in  China,  of  the  devotion,  unselfishness  and  ability  of  the 
missionary  educators.  There  are  immense  possibilities  for  good 
wrapped  up  in  their  work,  which  will  more  and  more  come  to 
realization  as  the  unity  of  the  task  is  more  clearly  seen,  as  missions 
and  denominations  attain  the  measure  of  self-sacrifice   for  the 


PREFACE  XV 

common  good  which  the  individual  missionary  has  always  mani- 
fested, and  as  institutional  ambitions,  appropriate  to  a  previous 
period,  are  merged  in  the  effort  to  meet  the  present  situation 
effectively,  because  unitedly.  They  have  been  greatly  impressed 
with  the  increase  in  the  power  of  leadership  in  the  Chinese  Christian 
community  and  deeply  moved  by  the  vision  which  has  come  of  the 
time,  which  they  hope  is  not  far  off,  when,  as  the  result  of  the 
whole  Christian  movement,  there  shall  be  in  China  a  Christian 
community  characterized  by  physical  health,  financial  strength, 
keen  and  broad  intelligence,  high  character,  and  spiritual  power, 
a  community  endowed  with  the  power  of  self-development,  but 
abounding  also  in  good  works  to  those  that  are  without.  Such  a 
community  will  always  need  the  friendship  of  the  Christians  of 
other  nations,  as  the  latter  will  need  its  kindly  interest,  but  it  will 
furnish  its  own  leaders,  and  its  financial  resources,  and  will  take 
on  its  shoulders  the  support  and  management  of  its  own  institu- 
tions, and  the  even  greater  task  of  making  China  a  Christian  nation. 
It  is  the  creation  of  such  a  community  which  seems  to  the  Commis- 
sion the  principal  immediate  objective  of  Christian  education  in 
China.  The  opportunity  to  assist  in  the  attainment  of  this  objec- 
tive is  a  great  challenge  to  the  Christian  forces  of  Europe  and 
America. 

Note. — In  the  editions  printed  in  China  sums  of  money  are  given  in  Mexican  dollars. 
In  the  edition  printed  in  America  they  are  stated  in  gold  dollars,  except  in  the  chapter 
or.  Cost  of  Education. 


INTRODUCTION 

I.     The  Origin  of  the  Commission 

1.  The  first  of  the  several  steps  which  led  to  the  creation  of 
the  China  Educational  Commission  was  taken  in  China.  In  April, 
19 1 5,  in  response  to  the  frequently  expressed  desire  of  missionaries, 
the  China  Christian  Educational  Association  by  resolution  ex- 
pressed its  judgment  that  there  should  be  "a  careful  study  of  the 
higher  institutions  of  learning  by  a  commission  of  experts."  Three 
men  from  abroad  were  named  as  proper  persons  to  compose  the 
Commission,  and  it  was  suggested- that  there  should  also  be  one 
resident  of  China.  Of  the  three  persons  named,  one  has  served  on 
the  present  Commission,  and  another  has  made  valuable  contribu- 
tions to  the  work. 

2.  In  the  same  year  the  China  Continuation  Committee  at  its 
annual  meeting,  responding  to  the  action  of  the  China  Christian 
Educational  Association,  instructed  its  Executive  Committee  to 
cooperate  with  the  Educational  Association  in  arranging  for  a 
careful  study  of  the  higher  institutions  of  learning  in  China  by 
a  committee  of  experts  from  abroad,  and  suggested  that  there  be 
Chinese  representation  on  the  Commission. 

3.  The  matter  was  considered  and  approved  by  a  special  con- 
ference of  representatives  of  Mission  Boards  held  in  New  York, 
April  II,  1917.  In  April,  1918,  the  Advisory  Council  of  the  China 
Christian  Educational  Association  instructed  its  Executive  Com- 
mittee "to  press  forward  as  rapidly  as  possible  in  completing  the 
arrangements  for  a  survey  of  Christian  educational  work  in  China." 
They  again  requested  the  cooperation  of  the  China  Continuation 
Committee,  and  this  Committee,  at  its  annual  meeting,  April,  1918, 


2  INTRODUCTION 

reaffirmed  its  conviction  that  such  a  commission  was  needed,  and 
requested  the  Committee  of  Reference  and  Counsel  of  the  Foreign 
Missions  Conference  of  North  America  to  join  in  securing  such  a 
survey,  especially  by  providing  the  funds  and  by  appointing  the 
Commission  which  is  to  come  from  abroad." 

4.  In  response  to  this  united  request  from  China,  the  Com- 
mittee of  Reference  and  Counsel  of  the  Foreign  Missions  Con- 
ference in  April,  1918,  through  its  Chairman,  Rev.  James  L. 
Barton,  D.D.,  addressed  a  communication  to  the  Mission  Boards 
conducting  work  in  China  inquiring  whether  they  would  favor 
sending  a  special  commission  of  educators  to  make  a  study  of 
Christian  education  in  China.  The  majority  of  Boards  replied 
favorably.  Conditions  created  by  the  War  delayed  carrying  out 
the  plan  but,  in  February,  1920,  the  Committee  of  Reference  and 
Counsel,  pursuant  to  the  suggestions  and  requests  above  recorded, 
requested  the  Chairman  of  the  present  Commission  to  serve  as  the 
Chairman  of  the  proposed  Commission,  and  with  the  consent  of  his 
university  he  accepted  the  appointment. 

In  this  year  also  the  foreign  mission  societies  of  Great  Britain 
were  invited  to  join  in  the  proposed  study,  and  the  Conference  of 
Missionary  Societies  in  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  appointed  Pro- 
fessor Percy  M.  Roxby,  of  the  University  of  Liverpool,  to  serve 
on  the  Commission. 

5.  At  this  time  it  was  hoped  that  the  foreign  members  of 
the  Commission  could  proceed  to  China  in  September,  1920.  This 
however  proved  impossible  and  the  departure  was  postponed  a  year. 
Meantime,  also,  it  had  been  decided  to  remove  the  original  limita- 
tion of  the  work  of  the  Commission  to  higher  education  and  to 
include  all  education  under  Christian  auspices,  and  also  to  increase 
the  number  of  foreign  members  from  three  to  six, — five  from  the 
United  States  and  one  from  Great  Britain.  This  arrangement  was 
in  a  measure  reciprocal  to  that  of  the  Commission  of  1919  to  India, 
which  consisted  of  three  members  from  England,  one  from  the 
United  States,  and  one  from  India. 

6.  In  connection  with  the  annual  meeting  of  the  Foreign 
Missions  Conference  held  in  January,  192 1,  there  were  held  meet- 


INTRODUCTION  3 

ings  of  the  leaders  of  the  Mission  Boards  having  work  in  China 
together  with  missionaries  from  China,  at  which  the  plans  for  the 
Commission  were  considered.  A  sub-committee,  appointed  by  this 
meeting,  drew  up  a  suggested  budget.  This  budget  was  sub- 
sequently approved  by  the  Committee  of  Reference  and  Counsel 
and  used  as  the  basis  for  securing  the  funds  necessary  to  assure 
the  dispatch  of  the  Commission,  arrangements  for  which  were  com- 
pleted in  May,  1921.  The  funds  were  secured,  partly  from  the 
various  Foreign  Mission  Boards,  partly  from  the  Rockefeller 
Foundation  of  New  York  City.  The  following  Boards  made 
contributions : 

American  Baptist  Foreign  Mission  Society. 

American  Board  of  Commissioners   for  Foreign   Missions. 

Board  of  Foreign  Missions,   Methodist   Episcopal  Church. 

Board  of  Missions,  Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  South. 

Board  of  Foreign  Missions,   Presbyterian  Church  in   Canada. 

Board  of  Foreign  Missions,  Presbyterian  Church  in  the  U.  S.  A. 

Board  of  Foreign  Missions,   Reformed  Church  in  America. 

Board  of  Foreign  Missions,  Reformed  Church  in  United  States. 

Domestic   and   Foreign   Missionary    Society,    Protestant   Episcopal    Church 

in  the  U.  S.  A. 
Foreign  Missionary  Society,  United  Brethren  in  Christ. 
General  Mission  Board,  Church  of  the  Brethren. 

General  Missionary  Board,  Free  Methodist  Church  of  North  America. 
International  Committee,  Young  Men's  Christian  Association. 
National  Board,  Young  Women's  Christian  Association. 
United  Christian  Missionary  Society. 
Yale  Foreign  Missionary  Society. 

II.     The  Personnel  of  the  Commission 

7.  The  Commission,  as  finally  constituted,  consisted  of  six- 
teen members,  five  appointed  by  the  Committee  of  Reference  and 
Counsel,  one  by  the  Standing  Committee  of  the  Conference  of 
Missionary  Societies  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  and  ten  mem- 
bers from  China,  three  of  them  Chinese,  two  British  and  five 
Americans,  appointed  by  a  joint  committee  of  the  China  Christian 
Educational  Association  and  the  China  Continuation  Committee. 

Its  membership  was  as  follows : 


INTRODUCTION 

Ernest   D.   Burton,  D.D.,   Chicago,   Illinois,  Chairman. 

Professor    in    the    University    of    Chicago. 
Kenyon  L.   Butterfield,   A.M.,   LL.D.,   Amherst,   Massachusetts. 

President    of    the    Massachusetts    Agricultural    College. 
Henry  B.   Graybill,  A.M.,   Canton,   China. 

Principal   of   the   Middle   School    of    Canton    Christian    College. 
P.  W.  Kuo,  Ph.D.,  Nanking,  China. 

President    of    the    National    Southeastern    University. 
Clara  J.  Lambert,  Foochow,  China. 

Principal    of    the    Church    Missionary    Society    School    for    Girls. 

Yau  Tsit  Law,  A.M.,  Canton,  China. 

Teacher  in  the  True  Light   Middle  School   for   Girls. 
Francis  J.  McConnell,  D.D.,   Pittsburgh,   Pennsylvania. 

Bishop    of    the    Methodist    Episcopal    Church    in    the    United    States;    formerly 

President    of    De    Pauw    University,    Greencastle,    Indiana. 
Chang  Po-ling,  Litt.D.,  Tientsin,  China. 

President  of   Nan  Kai   College. 
Percy  M.   Roxby,  B.A.,  Liverpool,  England. 

Professor    of    Geography    in    the    University    of    Liverpool. 

William   F.    Russell,    Ph.D.,   Iowa   City,   Iowa. 

Dean    of   the    College    of    Education    of    the    State    University    of    Iowa. 
J.  Leighton  Stuart,  D.D.,  Peking,  China. 

President   of    Peking    University. 

Mrs.   Lawrence  Thurston,   B.S.,   Nanking,   China. 

President  of    Ginling   College. 

Edward  W.  Wallace,  D.D.,  Chengtu,  China. 

General    Secretary    of    the    West    China    Christian    Educational    Union. 
Mary  E.  Woolley,   Ll-.D.,   South   Hadley,   Massachusetts. 

President  of    Mt.    Holyoke   College. 

Ex-Officio  Members 
Frank  D.   Gamewell,  LL.D.,   Shanghai,   China. 

General     Secretary    of    the    China    Christian     Educational     Association. 

Edwin  C.   Lobenstine,  A.B.,   Shanghai,   China. 

Secretary    of    the    China    Continuation    Committee. 

Secretaries  of  the  Commission 

Margaret  E.  Burton,  A.B.,  New  York  City. 
Secretary    of    the    National    Board    of    the    Young    Women's    Christian    Associa- 
tion  of    the    United    States. 

Frank  W.  Padelford,  D.D.,  New  York  City. 

Executive   Secretary   of   the    Board   of    Education   of   the   Northern    Baptist    Con- 
vention of  the  United  States. 

Secretary  to  the  Chairman 
Amos  M.  Mathews,  J.D.,  Cherokee,  Iowa. 


INTRODUCTION  5 

8.  The  members  and  secretaries  of  the  Commission  have 
served  without  salary,  their  expenses  only  being  borne  by  the  Com- 
mission.^ Acknowledgment  is  due  to  the  various  institutions  and 
Boards  which  granted  leaves  of  absence  to  the  several  members  and 
to  the  secretaries,  that  they  might  serve  on  the  Commission. 

9.  The  international  character  of  the  Commission,  and  the 
variety  of  previous  experience  of  its  members,  which  clearly  appear 
from  the  above  list,  have  been  of  great  value  in  all  its  work.  An 
even  larger  participation  of  Christian  Chinese  men  and  women 
would  have  been  desirable  and  welcome. 

III.    The  Travels  of  the  Commission 

10.  The  American  members  of  the  Commission,  with  the 
exception  of  Mr.  McConnell,  assembled  in  Vancouver  in  August, 
1921,  where  they  were  joined  by  Mr.  Roxby,  and  by  Mr.  Wallace, 
the  latter  returning  to  China  after  a  furlough  in  America.  The 
party  sailed  on  the  Empress  of  Asia  August  eighteenth,  and  ar- 
rived in  Yokohama  August  twenty-ninth.  Profitable  use  was  made 
of  the  time  on  shipboard.  Beside  the  Commission  there  were 
among  the  passengers  the  members  of  the  China  Medical  Board 
and  their  guests  on  the  way  to  Peking  to  attend  the  dedication 
of  the  buildings  of  the  Peking  Union  Medical  College,  a  number 
of  missionary  administrators  from  America  and  England  going 
out  to  study  their  fields,  over  one  hundred  missionaries,  and  a 
group  of  Chinese  students  returning  to  China  after  study  or  tem- 
porary residence  abroad.  The  Commission  met  on  an  average 
twice  a  day  to  discuss  its  work  and  to  confer  with  some  of  the 
persons  above  named  on  matters  of  common  interest. 

Two  weeks  spent  in  Japan  and  Korea  proved  profitable 
because  of  the  intrinsic  interest  of  those  countries  and  especially 
because  of  the  broader  basis  which  was  thus  furnished  for  the 
study  of  the  problems  of  China.  The  Commission  arrived  in 
Moukden  September  twelfth,  and  in  Peking  September  thirteenth. 

11.  At  Peking  the  members  from  Great  Britain  and  the 
United  States  were  joined  by  the  China  members,  with  the  ex- 

1  Dr.  Padelford  made  the  journey  entirely  at  his  own  expense. 


6  INTRODUCTION 

ception  of  Mr.  Lobenstine,  who  was  detained  by  illness,  and  the 
Commission  was  organized  with  sixteen  of  its  eighteen  members 
present.  The  distinction  between  the  two  groups,  as  well  as  dif- 
ferences of  nationality,  were  quickly  forgotten,  and  the  whole 
Commission  worked  together  as  one  body.  It  was  a  matter  of 
great  satisfaction  that  all  the  Chinese  members  were  able  to  be 
present  at  the  Peking  meetings  of  the  Commission,  and  of  regret 
that  the  duties  of  Mr.  Chang  and  Mr.  Kuo  made  it  impossible  for 
them  to  participate  in  the  field  work  or  to  take  as  large  a  part  as 
was  hoped  in  the  later  conferences  of  the  Commission. 

12.  After  a  little  over  two  weeks  spent  in  Peking  and  vicinity, 
in  exchange  of  views  between  the  two  groups  which  met  there,  in 
making  definite  plans  for  the  work  in  China,  including  the  prepara- 
tion of  a  Manual  of  Field  Work,  and  in  visiting  various  schools, 
the  Commission  was  broken  into  parties  for  the  study  of  education 
in  different  regions.  A  group  consisting  of  Messrs.  Stuart,  Butter- 
field,  and  Roxby,  and  Miss  Law,  later  joined  also  by  Miss  Woolley, 
visited  Shansi,  Honan,  Hunan,  Hupeh,  as  well  as  certain  points  in 
the  Lower  Yangtse  Valley.  Messrs.  Russell,  Wallace,  Graybill, 
and  Padelford,  and  Miss  Lambert,  Miss  Burton,  and  Mrs.  Thurs- 
ton visited  Shantung,  and  then  going  through  to  Shanghai,  in 
groups  visited  Manila,  Hongkong,  Canton,  Swatow,  Amoy,  and 
Foochow.  Mr.  Butterfield  also  later  made  the  journey  to  Manila, 
Hongkong,  and  Canton. 

13.  After  the  return  of  both  parties  to  Shanghai  toward  the 
end  of  November,  delegations  were  sent  to  Nanking,  Soochow, 
Hangchow,  Ningpo,  Shaohsing,  and  Kashing,  and  to  the  schools 
in  Shanghai.  It  was  judged  to  be  in  the  interest  of  the  work  of 
the  Commission  that  the  Chairman,  who  had  on  a  previous  occasion 
travelled  extensively  through  China,  should  spend  most  of  his 
time  in  Peking  and  Shanghai  studying  matters  which  could  best  be 
dealt  with  there.  Beside  these  cities,  however,  he  visited  Mouk- 
den,  Tientsin,  Tsinan,  Nanking,  and  Soochow.  Mr.  Gamewell 
and,  Mr.  Lobenstine,  who  were  already  familiar  by  long  residence 
and  extensive  journeys  with  conditions  in  China,  were  detained  in 
Shanghai  by  their  duties  there,  especially  in  connection  with  the 


INTRODUCTION  7 

National  Christian  Conference  to  be  held  in  May,  1922.  Mr. 
McConnell,  whose  official  duties,  much  to  the  regret  of  his  col- 
leagues, had  detained  him  in  the  United  States,  joined  the  Com- 
mission in  Shanghai  on  November  twenty-seventh. 

Regular  meetings  of  the  Commission  for  the  study  of 
the  data  gathered  on  these  journeys  and  otherwise  acquired  began 
in  Shanghai,  November  twenty-second,  and  except  for  occasional 
interruption  for  visiting  schools  in  the  vicinity,  continued  daily 
until  the  final  adjournment  of  the  Commission,  January  twenty- 
fourth,  1922. 

The  following  is  the  list  of  cities  visited  by  one  or  more 
members  of  the  Commission,  the  delegation  varying  from  one  to 
eighteen :  Moukden,  Peking,  Tunghsien,  Tientsin,  Tsinan,  Weih- 
sien,  Nanking,  Soochow,  Shanghai,  Hangchow,  Ningpo,  Shaohsing, 
Kashing,  Woosung,  Foochow,  Amoy,  Swatow,  Kakchieh,  Chaoy- 
anghsien,  Chaochow,  Kityang,  Canton,  Fatshan,  Taikuhsien,  Tai- 
yuan,  Pingting,  Chengte,  Weihwei,  Kaifeng,  Hankow,  Wuchang, 
Hanyang,  Changsha,  Chengchow,  Kiukiang,  Nanchang,  Hongkong, 
Manila. 

The  Commission  visited  between  four  and  five  hundred 
schools,  Christian,  government,  and  private. 

It  is  a  matter  of  serious  regret  to  the  Commission  that 
the  limitation  of  its  time  in  China,  and  the  length  of  the  journey 
to  West  China,  rendered  more  serious  by  the  disturbed  state  of  the 
country,  made  it  impossible  to  include  West  China  in  the  areas 
visited.  The  Commission  had,  however,  the  benefit  of  extended 
conference  with  missionaries  from  Szechwan,  including  a  member 
of  the  Commission  who  was  in  constant  attendance  on  its  sessions. 


IV.    The  Scope  of  the  Work  of  the  ComMission 

14.  The  scope  of  the  task  which  the  Commission  was  in- 
structed to  undertake  will  appear  from  the  resolutions  passed  by 
the  China  Christian  Educational  Association  and  the  China  Con- 
tinuation Committee  above  referred  to;  and  from  the  following- 
extracts  from  a  memorandum  adopted  by  the  sub-committee  on 


8  INTRODUCTION 

Emergencies  and  Reference  of  the  Committee  of  Reference  and 
Counsel,  August  8,  192 1 : 

"It  is  desired  to  leave  the  Commission  full  freedom  as  to  meth- 
ods of  work.     It  is,  however,  suggested  that  the  methods  include : 

"(i)  Conferences  with  leaders  among  the  Chinese  Christians 
and  the  missionaries  (those  engaged  in  evangelistic,  medical  and  educa- 
tional and  other  forms  of  service)  in  as  many  centers  as  can  be  conven- 
iently reached.  It  may  be  desirable  to  break  the  Commission  up  into 
groups  in  order  to  reach  as  large  a  number  of  centers  as  possible. 

"(2)  Interviews  with  missionaries  engaged  in  all  forms  of 
service ;  with  Chinese  Christians ;  with  Chinese  officials  engaged  in  educa- 
tional work  and  in  other  forms  of  government  service. 

"(3)  Visits  to  educational  institutions.  The  Commission  will 
visit  as  many  different  institutions  as  may  be  possible,  schools  of  all 
grades  and  types,  those  under  government  control  as  well  as  those  under 
Christian  auspices,  covering  in  such  visitation  as  many  sections  of  China 
as  time  and  circumstances  will  permit. 

"The  purpose  of  the  study  made  by  the  Commission  is  to 
inquire  sympathetically  and  carefully  into  the  entire  educational  situation 
in  China  and  the  relation  which  the  educational  work  carried  on  in 
China  by  Foreign  Mission  Boards  and  by  other  Christian  forces,  either 
Chinese  or  foreign,  should  bear  to  it,  and  upon  the  basis  of  these  studies 
to  suggest  the  part  which  the  Mission  Boards  at  work  in  China  might  well 
take  in  the  education  of  the  Chinese  people.  This  will  involve  considera- 
tion of  the  broad  purposes  of  education,  particularly  with  regard  to  the 
building  of  character  and  training  in  spiritual  leadership  which,  in  view 
of  the  social,  moral,  intellectual,  economic,  political,  and  religious  life 
of  the  Chinese  people,  and  the  international  relationships  of  the  nation, 
are  to  be  achieved  by  education  in  China.  Looking  toward  the  future 
of  China,  and,  in  particular,  to  the  development  of  the  Christian  com- 
munity, the  Commission  will  inquire,  on  the  one  hand,  what  part  education 
shall  take  in  building  up  the  Christian  Church  and,  on  the  other  hand, 
among  the  educational  forces  of  China  what  part  Christian  education 
shall  take? 

"The  studies  of  the  Commission  should,  therefore,  attempt  to 
answer  such  vital  questions  as  these : 

"In  view  of  the  evident  fact  that  the  major  part  of  education 
must  necessarily  be  done  by  the  government  of  China,  what  is  the  specific 
and  distinctive  contribution  which  Christian  schools  in  China  ought  to 
make  to  the  total  educational  task? 

"Should  the  emphasis  of  their  work  be  mainly  on  quantity  or 
on  ciuality— on  the  number  of  schools  and  of  pupils  in  these  schools  or  on 


INTRODUCTION  9 

the  influence  exerted  by  them  by  virtue  of  the  character  of  their  work? 

Should  education  as  conducted  by  the  Christian  forces  look 
solely  to  the  raising  up  of  leaders  in  the  work  of  the  Christian  churches, 
and  the  development  of  the  Christian  community,  or  should  it  also  seek, 
directly  or  indirectly,  the  welfare  of  the  whole  people? 

"The  educational  work  as  developed  and  carried  on  by  the 
Mission  Boards  has  included  elementary,  secondary  and  higher  education. 
Where  shall  the  emphasis  be  placed  in  the  future?  Shall  it  deal  with 
all  the  types  of  education,  professional  and  non-professional,  technical  and 
non- technical,  or  shall  it  limit  itself  to  certain  specific  types?  If  the 
latter,  which  types  shall  it  develop?  Shall  it  seek  only  to  produce  lead- 
ership for  the  church,  in  the  different  forms  of  activity,  or  shall  it  also 
seek  to  prepare  high-minded  and  efficient  teachers  for  public  schools  and, 
through  such  means  and  otherwise,  to  influence  helpfully  the  entire  educa- 
tional situation. 

"The  Commission  will  endeavor  to  make  suggestions  looking 
towards  the  formulation,  by  the  Mission  Boards  and  Chinese  Christian 
forces,  of  an  educational  program  which  will  be  possible  for  the  Christian 
agencies,  foreign  and  Chinese,  to  achieve,  account  being  taken  of  what 
the  state  will  do  in  education  and  of  the  resources  of  the  Christian  forces, 
and  of  their  responsibility  to  all  other  forms  of  Christian  effort  as  carried 
on  in  China  by  the  Mission  Boards.  It  will  consider  whether  our  Chris- 
tian schools  must  parallel  the  State  schools  in  every  respect,  or  must 
accept  for  themselves  a  specific  task  and  make  to  the  life  of  China  a 
contribution  which  cannot  be  made  by  any  other  agency. 

"It  will  not  be  the  purpose  of  the  Commission  to  pronounce 
judgment  on  individual  institutions.  Its  task  will  be  rather  the  more 
important  one  of  a  painstaking  and  careful  study  of  educational  conditions 
in  the  country,  of  stating  general  principles,  proposing  a  general  program, 
including  the  educational  needs  of  certain  areas,  and  suggesting  stand- 
ards by  which  the  Boards  may  be  guided.  The  application  of  these  con- 
clusions to  the  several  institutions  must  be  made  by  the  bodies  responsible 
for  their  maintenance  and  management." 

15.  The  following  extract  from  a  letter  from  Mr.  J.  H. 
Oldham,  Secretary  of  the  Conference  of  Missionary  Societies  of 
Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  will  serve  also  to  show  the  point  of 
view  of  the  British  societies : 

"The  purpose  of  the  Commission,  if  I  understand  the  matter 
aright,  is  to  enable  the  Foreign  Mission  Boards — and,  so  far  as  it  may 
desire  to  avail  itself  of  the  results,  the  Chinese  church — to  determine 
how  their  available  resources  in  men  and  money  can  be  expended  during 


10  INTRODUCTION 

the  next  few  years  to  the  best  advantage  for  the  Christian  good  of  the 
Chinese  people.  The  objects  of  the  Boards  are  the  spread  in  China  of 
the  knowledge  of  Christ,  the  raising  up  of  a  strong  leadership,  ministerial 
and  lay,  for  the  Christian  community,  and  the  contribution  to  the  general 
system  of  education  of  that  distinctive  and  rich  type  which  finds  its 
inspiration  in  the  Christian  conception  of  life.  I  hope  the  Commission 
will  attempt  to  state  as  clearly  and  definitely  as  possible  the  policy  which 
with  the  given  resources  will  most  conduce  to  the  realization  of  these 
aims  (or  such  other  definition  of  aims  as  the  Commission  may  judge 
most  adequately  to  represent  the  purposes  of  the  Boards)." 

1 6.  In  harmony  with  these  several  communications  the  Com- 
mission has  been  more  concerned  with  present  conditions  than  with 
past  history,  but  has  studied  both  with  a  view  not  to  criticising 
them  but  to  judging  what  should  be  the  policy  of  the  future.  It 
has  visited  many  schools,  for  the  purpose  of  grasping  the 
whole  situation  rather  than  of  passing  judgment  on  individual 
institutions.  The  latter  would  have  consumed  to  little  purpose 
the  time  and  energy  that  were  needed  for  what  was  judged  a  far 
more  important  task.  When  individual  schools  are  mentioned  it 
is  to  illustrate  a  recommendation  or,  in  conformity  with  our 
instructions,  to  endeavor  to  define  a  policy  for  a  region. 

V.    PVhat  is  Christian  Education f 

I/.  We  have  already  employed  the  term  "Christian  Educa- 
tion" and  shall  have  occasion  to  use  it  repeatedly  in  the  Report. 
It  is  in  common  use,  but  apparently  with  a  considerable  and  per- 
haps legitimate  variety  of  meanings.  For  the  purposes,  however, 
of  a  report  in  which  the  term  must  constantly  appear,  it  seems 
necessary  to  indicate  somewhat  exactly  the  sense  in  which  the 
phrase  is  to  be  employed.  In  the  judgment  of  the  Commission  the 
essential  and  distinctive  characteristic  of  Christian  Education  lies 
not  in  the  body  under  whose  authority  it  is  conducted,  nor  in  the 
ecclesiastical  relations  of  the  persons  conducting  it,  nor  in  the 
subject-matter  of  the  curriculum,  but  in  its  spirit  and  purpose. 
In  the  strict  sense  the  term  applies  to  education  which  is  conducted 
in  the  Christian  spirit  and  which  aims  to  exemplify  and  impart 


INTRODUCTION  n 

that  spirit.  It  might  correctly  be  apphed  to  a  Sunday-school  or  to 
a  School  of  Commerce ;  but  either  might  be  so  conducted  as  not 
to  deserve  the  title. 

When,  however,  we  speak  of  Christian  Education  with  reference 
to  a  general  scheme  or  system  of  schools,  and  of  the  measures  that 
will  be  necessary  to  conserve  their  Christian  character,  it  becomes 
evident  that  the  question  of  personalities  and  of  control  will  have 
to  be  taken  into  account.  Only  in  case  a  system  of  schools  is  con- 
trolled by  a  body,  itself  composed  of  Christian  men  and  women, 
can  there  be  any  guarantee  that  the  schools  will  continue  to  be 
Christian.  When  church  and  state  are  united,  it  is  possible  that 
this  condition  should  be  fulfilled  in  a  system  of  government 
education ;  when,  however,  church  and  state  are  separate,  and  the 
officers  of  government  are  selected  for  other  qualifications  than 
their  religious  character,  though  it  is  always  possible  that,  by  reason 
of  the  character  and  ideals  of  the  teachers,  a  given  school  shall  be 
essentially  and  vitally  Christian,  yet  there  is  no  guarantee  or  cer- 
tainty that  schools  established  and  maintained  by  the  government, 
whether  municipal,  provincial,  or  national,  will  continue  to  be 
Christian  in  character. 

In  China,  therefore,  in  reference  to  a  system  of  schools 
designed  to  be  at  least  measurably  permanent,  the  term  Christian 
is  naturally  and  properly  used  as  over  against  a  system  of  schools 
conducted  by  the  government,  or  by  voluntary  non-Christian 
agencies,  to  designate  education  which  is  controlled  by  Christian 
men  or  women,  is  conducted  from  a  Christian  motive,  and  aims 
to  impart  to  those  who  receive  it  the  knowledge  and  training  which 
will  most  contribute  to  worthy  living,  individual  and  social,  and 
especially  to  generate  in  them  that  Christian  spirit  which  is  its 
own  governing  motive. 

It  is  in  this  sense  that  in  this  Report,  dealing  as  it  does 
not  with  isolated  schools  but  w'ith  groups  and  a  developing  system 
of  education,  the  term  Christian  Education  will  be  used.  The  term 
carries  in  itself  no  implication  of  the  grade  of  the  school,  the  sub- 
ject-matter of  the  curriculum,  or  the  class  of  pupils  for  whom  it  is 
intended. 


12  INTRODUCTION 

For  practical  convenience  the  term  Christian  Education 
is  used  in  this  Report  with  chief  or  exclusive  reference  to  educa- 
tion under  Protestant  Christian  auspices.  This  is  with  no  intention 
of  ignoring  the  many  schools  of  the  Roman  Catholic  missions,  but 
because  their  educational  work  does  not  come  within  the  scope  of 
the  study. 

VI.    The  Challenge  of  China  and  the  Outlook  for  the 
Christian  Movement 

1 8.  The  Introduction  is  not  the  appropriate  place  for  conclu- 
sions. Yet  if  we  could  enable  the  reader  to  see  China  through  our 
eyes  as  we  see  it  after  our  months  of  study,  he  would  understand 
better  than  he  can  otherwise  the  facts  that  we  state  and  the  recom- 
mendations that  we  make  in  the  body  of  the  Report.  These  con- 
cluding paragraphs  of  the  Introduction  will  then  be  an  attempt  to 
set  forth  some  of  the  outstanding  facts  that  condition  the  whole 
future  of  the  Christian  movement  in  China  and  must  be  taken  into 
account  in  any  educational  plans. 

19.  The  political  condition  of  China  is  one  of  instability  and 
the  future  is  still  uncertain.  The  Manchu  Dynasty  developed  a 
system  of  government  of  which  political  corruption  was  almost  an 
essential  part,  and  left  it  as  an  inheritance  to  the  nation  when  that 
dynasty  was  overthrown  in  191 1.  The  establishment  of  the  Repub- 
lic did  not  end  political  corruption.-  Intelligent  observers  say  that 
it  has  increased.  This  state  of  affairs  hangs  as  a  millstone  around 
the  neck  of  China.  It  hinders  internal  development  whether  in 
communication,  health,  or  education.  It  complicates  and  embar- 
rasses international  relations.  It  is  a  damage  not  only  to  China, 
but  to  the  whole  family  of  nations,  introducing  an  element  of 
danger  into  a  situation  difficult  enough  at  best.  The  evil  is  dis- 
tinctly a  moral  one;  the  only  remedy  for  it  is  moral,  and  in  large 
part  through  an  education  permeated  with  sound  moral  ideas  and 
ideals.  No  increase  of  technical  efficiency  will  correct  this  funda- 
mental danger, 

20.  Despite  this  ethical  situation  there  is  a  large  group  of 


INTRODUCTION  I3 

high-minded  Chinese  who  are  determined  to  build  up  in  China  a 
strong  educational  system.  They  are  courageous,  patriotic,  earnest, 
intelligent,  self-sacrificing.  Some  of  them  are  in  government  ser- 
vice, some  of  them  not;  some  of  them  Christians,  some  of  them 
non-Christians.  These  men  are  in  touch  with  one  another.  Con- 
ferences are  frequently  held  at  which  important  educational  ques- 
tions are  discussed.  They  have  magazines  for  the  expression  of 
their  ideas,  and  with  government  aid  seek  the  help  of  able  foreign- 
ers. Moreover,  despite  the  relative  poverty  of  China  and  the 
waste  of  public  money  due  to  political  corruption,  government  and 
private  schools  are  able  to  command  resources  far  beyond  those 
of  the  Christian  schools.  The  long-time  interest  of  the  Chinese  in 
education  has  been  turned  into  a  new  channel.  The  old  examina- 
tion system  is  gone;  the  old-time,  inefficient  private  schools  are 
going.  In  their  places  is  rising  rapidly  a  new  system  of  Chinese 
education  which,  despite  all  its  defects,  promises  great  things  for 
the  future. 

21.  In  these  new  developments  the  more  forward-looking  and 
alert-minded  Chinese,  both  Christians  and  non-Christians,  are 
deeply  and  rightly  interested.  These  schools  are  theirs  as  no 
schools  supported  and  controlled  by  foreigners  can  be.  All  their 
old,  traditional  love  of  things  Chinese,  and  all  their  new  nationalism 
unite  to  stimulate  this  interest  and  make  them  enthusiastic  for  the 
development  and  support  of  schools  of  this  type.  Despite  the  fact 
that  as  yet  the  government  schools  reach  but  a  small  fraction  of  the 
population  of  school  age,  they  already  have  many  times  the  num- 
ber of  pupils  in  the  Christian  schools  and  promise  still  further 
development.  Moveover,  in  equipment  and  in  some  forms  of 
efficiency  they  are  close  rivals  of  the  Christian  schools,  or  even 
superior  to  some  of  the  latter. 

22.  These  facts  put  the  Christian  schools  in  a  very  different 
position  from  that  which  they  occcupied  a  few  years  ago  when  they 
were  almost  the  only  schools  in  China  conducted  on  modern  lines. 
They  signify  that  there  is  no  longer  any  possibility  of  successful 
competition  on  the  basis  of  numbers.  That  contest  is  over  and 
the  schools  established  by  the  Chinese  in  the  last  fifteen  years 


14  INTRODUCTION 

have  won  it.  Henceforth  the  Christian  schools  must  base  their 
claims  on  quality  alone.  There  is  nothing  but  this  to  attract  the 
non-Christian,  and  even  the  Christian  will  prefer  a  good  non- 
Christian  school  to  a  poor  Christian  school.  Henceforth,  it  matters 
not  nearly  so  much  how  many  schools  we  have  as  how  good  they 
are.  Moreover,  the  Christian  schools  will  more  and  more  be 
classed  together,  and  every  poor  school  will  be  a  liability. 

23.  The  Christian  schools  must  also  as  rapidly  as  possible 
divest  themselves  of  their  foreign  character.  In  the  days  before 
1900,  this  was  an  advantage  to  them,  because  it  stood  for  a  certain 
quality  that  was  not  found  in  the  native  school.  It  is  still  so  to  a 
certain  extent  and  in  certain  respects.  But  it  will  be  decreasingly 
so  as  the  new  Chinese  schools  continue  to  improve.  It  must  be 
remembered  that  Chinese  Christians  are  Chinese  as  well  as  Chris- 
tian, and  that  the  very  patriotism  which  Christianity  tends  to  pro- 
duce will  draw  them  away  from  a  school  whose  atmosphere  is 
foreign  and  to  one  that  is  Chinese.  It  is  not  wise  to  compel  them 
to  choose  between  these  alternatives.  The  Christian  school  must 
become  as  rapidly  as  possible  thoroughly  Chinese  as  well  as 
thoroughly  Christian,  if  it  is  to  attract  students  or  to  win  the  finan- 
cial support  of  the  Chinese.  Wealthy  non-Christian  Chinese  are 
even  now  gladly  helping  to  support  Christian  schools  of  high 
quality.  But  the  time  may  soon  come  when  even  Christian  Chinese 
of  wealth  will  be  more  interested  in  non-Christian  schools  that  are 
thoroughly  Chinese  than  in  Christian  schools  that  are  not. 

24.  These  facts  taken  together  point  clearly  to  the  opportunity 
of  the  Christian  school.  Thoroughly  Christian  in  its  character  and 
thoroughly  Chinese  in  its  atmosphere,  raised  to  a  high  level  of 
efficiency,  it  can  render  a  service  which  a  school  lacking  any  of  these 
characteristics  cannot  at  all  perform.  It  can  furnish  in  the  new 
life  of  China  a  force  that  can  come  from  no  other  source.  It  can 
determine  the  character  of  the  part  which  China  will  play  in  the 
drama  of  international  life.  It  cannot  do  this  simply  by  large  gifts 
of  money ;  this  might  even  prevent  the  schools  from  meeting  their 
present  opportunity  if  it  were  so  used  as  to  emphasize  the  foreign  ■ 
character  of  the  schools,  or  to  weaken  their  moral  influence.    The 


INTRODUCTION  15 

situation  calls  for  large  gifts  of  money,  for  quality  is  more  costly 
than  quantity;  but  it  calls  also  for  a  wise  policy  steadily  adhered 
to.  It  calls  for  men  and  women,  but  only  for  men  and  women  of 
high  Christian  character,  with  a  spirit  of  self-sacrifice  which  will 
make  them  ready  to  help  forward  the  process  of  transferring  the 
schools  into  the  hands  of  the  Chinese  as  fast  as  they  are  prepared 
to  receive  them,  and  with  training  which  will  enable  them  to  make 
the  schools  of  the  first  class  educationally.  More  men  of  any  other 
kind  may  only  tend  to  hinder  the  real  success  of  the  Christian 
schools. 

There  is  always  a  temptation  t-o  see  a  crisis  in  any  situation  with 
which  we  are  dealing.  But  it  is  our  sober  judgment  that  there  has 
developed  in  these  last  few  years  and  is  still  in  process  of  develop- 
ment a  new  opportunity  for  the  Christian  schools  of  China,  an 
opportunity  by  being  more  efficient,  more  Christian,  more  Chinese, 
to  render  to  China  and  to  Christianity  a  service  which  no  other 
institutions  can  render.  In  this  new  day  it  will  be  quality,  not 
numbers  that  will  count.  But  if  we  meet  the  situation  and  make 
such  schools  as  the  hour  requires,  we  cannot  have  too  many  of 
them.  We  look  for  the  day  when  Chinese  Christianity  shall  have 
become  so  strong  that  it  will  need  only  the  friendship  of  the 
Christians  of  other  nations.  But  that  day  is  not  yet.  Now  is  the 
hour  of  opportunity  so  to  strengthen  the  Christian  schools  of  China 
that  from  them  shall  come  the  men  and  women  who  will  make 
China  a  Christian  nation. 


PART  I 

THE  PRESENT  STATUS   OF   EDUCATION 
IN   CHINA 

I.    Government  Education 

25.  The  present  system  of  public  education  in  China  was 
introduced  about  fifteen  years  ago.  The  government  has  out- 
lined a  complete  system  although  not  able  as  yet  to  put  it  into 
effect  in  all  sections. 

26.  China  cannot  be  said  to  have  had  any  government 
schools  under  the  old  educational  system.  Education  was  left  to 
private  effort,  but  literary  attainment  was  decided  by  the  govern- 
ment through  its  system  of  competitive  examination  and  rewarded 
by  official  recognition.  When  China  was  forced  to  join  the  family 
of  nations,  she  discovered  that,  in  order  to  preserve  her  national 
existence,  she  had  to  modify  her  system  of  education.  Instead 
of  devoting  all  her  attention  to  the  study  of  the  classics,  she  now 
seeks  to  understand  the  sciences,  literature,  art,  laws,  and  govern- 
ment of  western  countries. 

27.  It  was  in  1898  that  Emperor  Kuang  Hsu  issued  the 
famous  edicts  that  brought  on  the  greatest  revolution  in  the  his- 
tory of  China.  Among  these  was  an  edict  outlining  the  organ- 
ization of  a  national  system  of  modern  schools  for  teaching  Chi- 
nese and  western  learning.  The  scheme  provided  for  the  estab- 
lishment of  schools  and  colleges  in  the  districts,  prefectures,  and 
provincial  capitals,  the  whole  to  be  capped  with  a  university  in 
Peking.  Soon  after  the  promulgation  of  this  edict  schools  began 
to  spring  up  over  the  country. 

17 


l8  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

In  1901  the  Empress  Dowager  issued  an  edict  ordering 
the  provincial  examination  halls  to  be  turned  into  colleges.  A 
middle  school  was  to  be  opened  in  each  prefecture,  an  elementary- 
school  in  each  district,  and  primary  schools  in  large  numbers. 
Other  edicts  appeared  for  the  establishment  of  colleges  in  the 
leading  cities,  the  opening  of  normal  schools  and  an  educational 
board  in  Peking,  and  modifications  of  the  competitive  examina- 
tions. It  was  found  that  as  long  as  the  old  examination  system 
was  retained  the  modern  schools  would  not  prosper.  So  in  Sep- 
tember, 1905,  the  old-style  literary  examination  was  abolished. 

28.  The  Revolution  of  191 1  was  a  landmark  in  the  history 
of  education  in  China.  Soon  after  its  organization  the  Pro- 
visional Government  turned  its  attention  to  popular  education. 
It  demanded  the  use  of  textbooks  in  harmony  with  the  spirit  of 
republicanism,  emphasized  manual  work,  military  and  physical 
exercises,  eliminated  the  classics  from  the  primary  school,  and 
permitted  boys  and  girls  to  study  together  in  the  same  lower  pri- 
mary schools.     It  also  stressed  social  education. 

29.  At  the  head  of  the  modern  system  is  the  Ministry  of 
Education,  with  its  Minister  of  Education,  who  is  assisted  by  a 
Vice-Minister  and  four  Councillors.  The  work  of  the  Ministry 
is  divided  into  the  Bureau  of  General  Education,  which  has 
charge  of  kindergartens,  primary,  middle,  and  normal  schools, 
school  attendance,  certification  and  appointment  of  teachers;  the 
Bureau  of  Technical  and  Professional  Education,  which  looks 
after  the  affairs  of  colleges  and  universities,  higher  technical 
schools,  and  the  sending  of  students  abroad;  and  the  Bureau 
of  Social  Education,  which  has  charge  of  affairs  relating  to  popu- 
lar education,  public  lectures,  libraries,  museums,  and  exhibits. 
The  Ministry  of  Education  sends  out  inspectors  to  visit  the 
schools  of  the  various  provinces.  Each  province  is  an  admin- 
istrative area  with  a  Commissioner  of  Education,  who  takes 
charge  of  the  educational  affairs.  He  is  the  agent  of  the  Ministry 
of  Education,  and  has  a  corps  of  assistants.  Each  province  has 
also  a  number  of  inspectors,  who  visit  schools  and  make  reports. 
Each  district  has  its  board  of  education  and  certain  of  the  gentry 


PRESENT  STATUS  OF  EDUCATION  19 

are  selected  to  manage  the  educational  affairs  in  cities,  towns  and 
villages. 

30.  At  the  base  of  the  present  system  is  the  lower  primary 
or  citizen  school  of  four  years.  After  completing  this  course  a 
pupil  may  enter  a  higher  primary  or  an  industrial  school  of  the 
B  class,  which  course  covers  three  years.  From  the  higher  pri- 
mary a  pupil  may  go  to  a  middle  school,  a  course  of  four  years, 
to  an  industrial  school  of  the  A  class,  or  to  a  normal  school.  For 
pupils  who  cannot  go  on  to  a  higher  grade  after  finishing  the  lower 
primary  or  higher  primary  school,  supplementary  courses  of  two 
years  are  provided.  A  pupil  may  go  from  the  middle  school  to 
a  university,  which  has  a  preparatory  course  of  two  years  and 
a  collegiate  course  of  four  years,  or  he  may  go  to  a  professional 
school  or  a  higher  normal  school.  The  regular  higher  normal 
school  course  requires  four  years,  with  one  preparatory  year. 
The  industrial  school  also  requires  a  preparatory  year,  and  its 
course  covers  three  years. 

31.  Primary  education  aims  to  develop  a  child  mentally  and 
physically,  lay  the  foundation  of  good  citizenship,  and  enable 
him  to  make  his  own  living  in  the  world.  These  aims  are  com- 
mon to  the  lower  and  higher  primary  schools.  The  responsibility 
for  establishing  primary  schools  and  kindergartens  rests  with  the 
cities,  towns  and  villages.  Higher  primary  schools  are  established 
by  the  districts.  Schools  for  defectives  are  managed  in  the  same 
way  as  the  primary  schools.  On  the  whole  the  primary  schools 
throughout  the  country  are  doing  good  work. 

32.  The  middle  school  aims  to  complete  the  general  education 
of  a  child  and  to  make  him  an  efficient  citizen.  The  provincial 
authorities  are  responsible  for  the  establishment  of  middle  schools, 
which  are  maintained  by  the  revenue  of  the  province.  At  pres- 
ent the  middle  schools  form  the  weakest  point  in  the  Chinese 
system  of  education.  Statistics  collected  by  the  Kiangsu  Edu- 
cational Association  show  that  seventy  per  cent  of  middle  school 
graduates  can  not  find  positions  in  which  they  can  earn  a  living. 
The  difficulty  in  the  middle  schools  is  with  the  methods  of  in- 
struction and  also  with  the  subjects  taught.     At  present  the  lee- 


20  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

ture  method  is  used  almost  exclusively,  and  the  students  are  pas- 
sive. The  consequence  is  that  they  learn  names  and  titles,  but 
gain  no  real  mastery  of  the  subject.  The  recitation  and  the 
laboratory  method  ought  to  be  introduced. 

33.  The  university  aims  to  train  men  of  ability  for  the  serv- 
ice of  the  state.  Its  preparatory  department  has  three  groups  of 
courses.  One  is  for  students  who  wish  to  enter  the  school  of 
arts,  law,  and  commerce;  another  is  for  those  who  look  forward 
to  entering  the  school  of  science;  and  the  third  is  for  those  who 
intend  to  enter  the  school  of  medicine.  The  university  offers 
courses  in  arts,  science,  including  applied  science,  law,  commerce, 
medicine,  and  agriculture. 

34.  Professional  schools,  which  may  be  established  by  the 
central  government,  provincial  authorities,  or  private  individuals, 
aim  to  train  for  some  special  profession  or  vocation.  They  may 
be  classed  as  schools  of  law,  medicine,  agriculture,  commerce, 
art,  music,  science,  and  languages. 

35.  The  aim  of  the  ordinary  normal  schools  is  to  train  ele- 
mentary school  teachers.  The  higher  normal  schools  are  to  train 
teachers  for  the  middle  and  normal  schools.  The  provinces  sup- 
port the  ordinary  normal  schools ;  the  higher  normal  schools  are 
maintained  by  the  central  government.  Normal  and  higher  nor- 
mal students  do  not  now  pay  tuition,  but  there  is  a  trend  towards 
such  charges. 

36.  Industrial  schools  aim  to  impart  the  knowledge  and 
skill  required  in  trades,  commerce,  and  agriculture.  The  B  grade 
gives  an  elementary  industrial  education  according  to  the  needs 
of  localities ;  the  A  grade  gives  a  complete  general  industrial 
education.  The  B  grade  schools  are  established  by  the  districts, 
cities,  towns,  and  villages,  or  by  bureaus  of  trade,  commerce,  and 
agriculture;  those  of  the  A  grade  are  established  by  the  province. 

37.  It  is  thus  seen  that,  generally  speaking,  the  central  gov- 
ernment is  responsible  for  higher  education,  the  provincial  gov- 
ernment looks  after  secondary  education,  and  elementary  educa- 
tion is  in  the  hands  of  district  officials  and  the  gentry  of  cities, 
towns,  and  villages. 


PRESENT  STATUS  OF  EDUCATION  21 

38.  According  to  available  statistics  the  number  of  pupils  in 
schools  in  China  during  1917  was  4,075,338.  This  grand  total 
is  made  up  of  3,898,065  boys  and  177,237  girls.  The  total  num- 
ber of  schools  was  122,286.     But  cf.  Appendix  I,  Table  III. 

39.  The  present  system  as  described  in  the  above  paragraphs 
was  borrowed  largely  from  the  Japanese  and  has  been  found  in 
some  ways  not  suited  to  the  needs  of  the  country.  A  new  sys- 
tem is  now  before  the  country  for  consideration,  having  been 
approved  by  the  National  Associated  Educational  Associations 
at  the  annual  meeting  hel3  in  Canton  in  1921. 

40.  As  the  present  system  stands  there  are  seven  primary 
years,  of  which  four  are  spent  in  the  lower  and  three  in  the  higher 
primary  schools.  The  division  into  higher  and  lower  primary 
is  discarded  in  the  new  system,  and  if  that  is  adopted  the  pri- 
mary schools  will  take  the  form  of  a  single  grade.  However, 
the  primary  course  may  be  divided  into  two  sections,  four  years 
and  two  years,  and  schools  giving  instruction  only  in  the  first 
four  years  may  be  established.  After  the  fourth  school  year 
special  courses  for  vocational  preparation  may  be  added.  Com- 
pulsory education  is  fixed  at  four  years  for  the  present,  but  this 
period  should  be  prolonged  where  possible. 

41.  The  greatest  change  is  proposed  in  the  middle  school 
period.  At  present  the  middle  school  course  is  four  years.  The 
new  plan  calls  for  a  six-year  period,  which  is  divided  between 
three  years  of  general  work,  corresponding  to  the  junior  high 
school  in  America,  and  three  years  of  a  somewhat  specialized 
vocational  training,  fitting  the  students  for  further  work  in  such 
subjects  as  engineering,  law,  medicine,  in  higher  schools,  or  for 
taking  up  some  special  line  of  activity  outside  of  the  schools. 
This  system  makes  it  possible  for  those  who  plan  to  go  on  to  a 
higher  education  to  do  so,  and  at  the  same  time  gives  definite 
vocational  training  for  those  who  are  to  leave  school  after  the 
middle  school  period.  It  is  rapidly  being  adopted  in  America 
and  the  European  countries ;  so  in  making  this  change  China  is 
falling  in  line  with  the  progressive  countries  of  the  West.  The 
elective  system  is  to  be  introduced   in  the  senior  middle   school 


22  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

course.     Thus  it  will  be  seen  that  the  proposed   plan  permits 
flexibility  and  adaptation  to  local  conditions. 

42.  Until  there  is  a  stable  government  in  China  and  reliable 
revenues  are  provided  for  the  support  of  schools,  education  will 
make  but  slow  progress  in  this  country.  Strikes  of  students, 
teachers  and  school  administrators,  including  the  staff  of  the 
Ministry  of  Education,  to  enforce  payment  of  arrears  in  salary 
have  been  too  frequent.  Nevertheless,  in  spite  of  internal  strife 
and  the  diversion  of  school  funds  to  military  purposes,  there  is 
a  genuine  interest  in  education  among  all  classes.  The  fact  that 
the  seventh  annual  meeting  of  the  National  Associated  Educa- 
tional Associations  met  in  Canton  last  October,  when  delegates 
from  the  central  and  northern  provinces  were  in  attendance,  shows 
that  the  country  is  united  educationally.  (For  proceedings  of  this 
meeting  see  Appendix  II.)  One  of  the  hopeful  signs  of  the 
times  is  the  formation  of  the  Educational  Reform  Society,  backed 
by  the  men  who  are  really  doing  educational  work  in  the  country, 
which  will  endeavor  to  put  the  new  system  into  operation. 

II.    Christian  Education — Protestant 

43.  Educational  work  under  the  auspices  of  Protestant 
Christianit}^  dates  from  the  year  1839,  when  Dr.  R.  S.  Brown 
opened  a  school  at  Macao.  Christian  ^  schools  were  at  first  estab- 
lished not  by  professional  educators  and  not  for  the  promotion 
of  education  for  education's  sake,  but  as  an  adjunct  and  aid  to 
evangelization.  Once  established,  however,  the  schools  vindi- 
cated their  right  to  live  not  only  by  serving  the  end  for  which 
they  were  originally  founded  but  by  contributing  effectively  to 
the  other  ends  which  missionary  work  began  to  set  for  itself.  As 
a  result  they  grew  in  number,  size,  and  variety  of  specific  char- 
acter ranging  from  the  kindergarten  to  the  college,  and  even  in 
a  few  cases  undertaking  (post-) graduate  work. 

44.  The  large  majority  of  the  schools  were  originally  es- 
tablished by  denominational  Boards  or  societies,  and  most  ele- 

*  In  Sections  43-48  the  term  Christian  is  used  for  brevity's  sake  in  the  sense 
of  Protestant  Christian. 


PRESENT  STATUS  OF  EDUCATION  23 

mentary  and  secondary  schools  are  still  carried  on  by  these  agen- 
cies. Since  about  the  beginning  of  this  century,  however,  partly 
as  a  result  of  the  Boxer  movement  of  1900,  which,  especially 
in  Northern  China,  destroyed  the  school  buildings  and  thus  gave 
opportunity  for  denominations  that  had  been  working  apart  to 
unite  and  to  build  better  schools,  partly  because  of  the  develop- 
ment of  the  spirit  of  unity  both  in  Christian  lands  and  in  China, 
partly  in  consequence  of  the  incoming  of  higher  educational 
ideals,  there  has  been  a  decided  tendency  toward  union  efforts  in 
the  field  of  higher  education.  In  West  China  the  missions  were 
established  in  so  recent  a  period  that  they  were  greatly  influenced 
by  the  general  trend  toward  union  or  at  least  cooperation,  and 
the  younger  missionaries  who  went  to  the  far  west  of  China  were 
able  to  avail  themselves  of  the  experience  of  their  older  fellow- 
workers.  As  a  consequence  we  have  in  the  Province  of  Szechwan 
a  division  of  territory  among  the  different  missions,  a  general 
school  system  covering  all  elementary  and  secondary  Christian 
schools,  and  a  single  university  in  the  conduct  and  support  of 
which  practically  all  the  Christian  forces  unite. 

45.  The  new  educational  movement  of  the  government,  dat- 
ing from  1900,  has  acted  as  a  powerful  stimulus  to  the  raising 
of  educational  standards  and  the  application  of  educational  tests 
to  the  schools,  and  as  a  means  to  the  end  of  attaining  higher 
standards  to  unification  of  effort.  Of  the  fourteen  institutions 
undertaking  senior  college  work  only  three  are  maintained  by 
a  single  denomination;  there  are  ten  union  theological  schools, 
and  but  two  medical  schools  are  sustained  by  a  single  Board. 

46.  The  total  figures  representing  the  educational  work  con- 
ducted by  the  Christian  forces  of  China  are  large  and  bear  tes- 
timony to  the  extent  and  power  of  the  Christian  movement.  Of 
the  one  hundred  and  thirty  Missionary  Boards  carrying  on  work 
in  China,  practically  all  are  doing  educational  work.  The  Young 
Men's  Christian  Association  and  the  Young  Women's  Christian 
Association  supplement  the  work  of  the  other  Christian  organiza- 
tions especially  in  adult  education,  education  for  the  underprivi- 
leged classes,  and  continuation  schools.     In  round  numbers  there 


2.1  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

are  1200  foreign  teachers  in  Christian  schools,  11.000  Chinese 
teachers,  150,000  pupils  in  lower  primary  schools,  33,000  in 
higher  primary  schools,  15,000  in  middle  schools,  600  in  teacher- 
training  schools  of  various  grades,  and  2,000  in  colleges  and  pro- 
fessional schools;  a  total  of  approximately  205,000  in  Christian 
schools  of  all  grades  and  types.  Though  there  is  but  one  Prot- 
estant Christian  communicant  in  approximately  every  one  thou- 
sand of  the  total  population,  there  is  one  pupil  in  a  Christian 
school  for  every  thirty  of  the  recorded  school  population.  This 
fact  reflects  in  part  a  greater  desire  for  education  among  Chris- 
tians, in  part  a  contribution  of  Christian  schools  to  the  educa- 
tion of  non-Christians.  Broadly  speaking,- one-half  of  the  pupils 
in  Christian  schools  come  from  non-Christian  families.  See  Ap- 
pendix I,  Table  II. 

47.  Even  these  figures  are  small  compared  with  those  of 
government  schools.  Taken  all  together,  government  schools 
have  about  twenty  times  as  many  pupils  as  the  Protestant  Chris- 
tian schools,  and  the  preponderance  of  the  figures  for  government 
education  over  those  for  Christian  schools  will  doubtless  increase 
rather  than  diminish. 

48.  The  case  for  the  Christian  schools  does  not  rest  upon 
the  number  of  such  schools  that  have  been  built  up  or  on  the 
number  of  pupils.  Their  sufficient  vindication  is  found  in  the 
place  which  their  graduates  are  already  taking  in  the  life  of  the 
nation  and  the  church,  and  the  influence  which  the  schools  them- 
selves are  exerting.  Despite  many  defects  due  to  the  way  in 
which  they  arose  and  the  inadequate  support  which  they  have 
received,  they  have  sent  out  men  and  women  who  are  to-day  hold- 
ing places  of  great  importance  and  exerting  a  significant  influence 
in  government,  in  education,  in  business  affairs,  and  in  the  de- 
veloping life  of  the  Christian  church.  On  these  men  and  women 
and  those  who  will  follow  them  will  in  large  part  rest  the  re- 
sponsibility for  the  building  up  of  the  church  and  for  the  permea- 
tion of  industry,  commerce,  and  politics  with  those  higher  ideals 
which  are  essential  to  the  attainment  by  China  of  a  healthy  na- 
tional life  and  that  place  among  the  nations  which  her  native 


PRESENT  STATUS  OF  EDUCATION  25 

ability  and  the  extent  of  her  resources  naturally  give  her.  The 
Christian  school  has  abundantly  proved  its  right  to  live.  The 
question  as  to  what  the  course  of  its  development  and  general 
policy  should  be  is  discussed  later  in  this  report. 

III.    Christian  Education — Roman  Catholic 

49.  The  educational  work  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church, 
except  in  a  few  large  centers,  cannot  be  classified  into  lower 
primary,  higher  primary,  and  middle  schools.  From  this  one 
must  not  infer  that  gaps  exist  in  the  system,  for  educational  facili- 
ties from  the  lower  primary  school  to  the  university  are  provided, 
though  frequently  at  considerable  inconvenience  to  the  students. 
The  difficulty  is  inherent  in  the  terminology,  in  the  lack  of  uni- 
formity in  the  statistical  returns,  and  in  the  wide  differences  in 
nationality  between  the  educational  workers  of  the  various  Roman 
Catholic  Church  Societies. 

50.  It  will  perhaps  be  fairer  to  those  supplying  the  data 
on  this  subject,  if  we  accept  the  French  terminology  as  used  in 
"Les  Missions  de  Chine."  In  most  cases  "ficoles  de  garqons" 
and  "£coles  de  filles"  may  be  regarded  as  lower  primary  schools. 
Occasionally  a  distinction  is  made  by  the  use  of  the  terms  "licoles 
Primaires"  and  ficoles  Superieurs,"  which  might  indicate  that  in 
a  number  of  centers  work  of  higher  primary  school  grade  is 
done.  There  is  no  conclusive  evidence  in  the  sources  consulted 
to  lead  one  to  infer  that  Roman  Catholic  Church  missions  are 
making  any  serious  attempt  to  follow  the  Chinese  government 
system  of  education,  either  in  grading  or  curricula. 

51.  Obviously  a  great  deal  of  educational  work  is  done  in 
connection  with  Roman  Catholic  Church  orphanages,  of  which 
there  are  between  one  hundred  and  fifty  and  two  hundred  in 
China,  by  far  the  largest  number  being  for  girls,  where  between 
15,000  and  20,000  children  are  cared  for.  In  answer  to  the 
question  whether  the  educational  work  done  in  these  orphanages 
is  included  in  statistical  returns  under  "ficoles  de  garqons"  and 
ficoles  de  filles,"  the  assurance  has  repeatedly  been  given  that 
this  is  not  the  case. 


26  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

52.  The  educational  work  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church 
extends  over  every  province  and  into  every  administrative  dis- 
trict of  China,  including  Tibet,  Kokonor,  and  Outer  Mongolia. 
While  this  work  is  primarily  for  the  children  of  the  church,  non- 
Christian  students  are  also  received.  Practically  every  bishopric 
in  China,  of  which  there  are  about  fifty,  reports  some  educational 
work.  In  bishoprics  in  the  far  interior  where  as  yet  the  strength 
of  the  church  is  not  great,  education  of  lower  primary  grade 
only  is  given,  but  every  bishopric  has  its  seminary  where  work- 
ers are  trained. 

53.  The  following  summaries  are  based  on  statistical  in- 
formation contained  in  "Les  Missions  de  Chine"  for  1920  and 
1921.  Due  to  incompleteness  in  returns,  the  figures  must  be  ac- 
cepted as  most  conservative. 

Schools    for    boys    3.5 1 8 

Pupils     83,757 

Schools   for  girls    2,615 

Pupils 53.283 

Normal    schools    16 

Students     612 

Colleges 61 

Students     4.503 

Seminaries     45 

Theological    students     582 

Catechists     1.607 

Total  number  in   Roman   Catholic   Schools    144,344 

54.  The  provinces  of  Chihli,  Kiangsu,  Hupeh,  Shansi, 
Anhwei,  and  Szechwan  appear  to  have  the  largest  number  of 
students  under  Christian  instruction.  Higher  education  cor- 
responding to  government  middle  school  work  is  emphasized  in 
Chihli,  Shantung,  Chekiang,  Fukien,  Kwangtung.  The  cities 
where  the  greatest  amount  of  educational  work  is  done  are,  in 
order,  Peking,  Shanghai,  Tientsin,  Hongkong,  and  Hankow.  The 
thirteen  Catholic  presses  exercise  some  influence  upon  the  in- 
tellectual life  of  students,  although  not  to  the  extent  one  might 
anticipate,  since  the  major  part  of  the  literature  is  devotional  in 
character. 

55.  The  incomplete  figures  indicate  in  a  very  imperfect  way 
the  higher  educational  work  of  the  Roman  church.     Moreover, 


PRESENT  STATUS  OF  EDUCATION  27 

they  give  no  indication  of  the  grade  of  the  schools  or  quality  of 
work.  In  some  instances  what  is  termed  a  "college,"  judged 
according  to  the  standards  of  the  government  educational  system, 
would  appear  to  be  a  middle  school.  The  requirements  for  ad- 
mission into  the  seminaries  vary  greatly  and  no  uniform  stand- 
ard of  work  exists.  A  number  of  them  have  less  than  a  score 
of  students. 

On  the  other  hand  those  who  know  the  scholarship  of 
many  Roman  Catholic  missionary  educators  and  the  high  quality 
of  their  literary  and  scientific  productions  will  at  once  be  ready 
to  admit  the  high  intellectual  standards  of  several  of  their  edu- 
cational institutions.  The  College  of  St.  Ignace  de  Zi-ka-wei, 
Shanghai,  founded  in  1850,  is  an  example  of  this  latter  type. 
Such  schools  as  the  College  de  St.  Ignace  (420  students),  the 
College  de  St.  Francis  Xavier,  and  Universite  L'Aurore  with  its 
special  departments  in  medicine,  languages  and  arts,  theology, 
sciences  and  technical  subjects,  do  splendid  educational  work. 
However,  after  all  is  said,  and  after  full  cognizance  and  apprecia- 
tion of  such  work  is  given,  the  fact  remains  that  for  a  church 
numbering  over  two  million  Christians  the  total  work  done  in 
higher  education  is  much  below  general  expectations,  and  cer- 
tainly much  below  the  need  of  its  Christian  constituency. 

56.  Considerable  emphasis  is  given  by  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church  to  religious  education,  "ficoles  de  Catechumens"  are 
reported  for  each  episcopal  area,  enrolling  large  numbers  of  chil- 
dren and  adults  of  both  sexes.  These  schools  for  religious  edu- 
cation are  connected  with  churches  and  chapels  and  generally  are 
under  the  direct  supervision  of  the  priest  in  charge.  Much  time 
is  also  given  to  religious  education  in  the  orphanages,  hospitals, 
and  homes  for  the  poor  and  aged.  The  Roman  Catholic  Church 
in  China  reports  a  body  of  catechumens  exceeding  400,000  in 
number,  or  over  twenty  per  cent  of  the  total  number  of  Christians 
enrolled.  In  addition  to  seminaries  where  candidates  are  pre- 
pared for  the  priesthood,  there  are  a  number  of  schools  for 
catechists  where  these  workers  receive  special  training. 

57.  In  connection  with  the  orphanages  much  work  is  done 


28  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

in  industrial  training.  The  productions  of  these  schools  are  of 
high  quality  and  in  much  demand.  The  instruction  and  work 
of  both  children  and  adults  are  under  the  supervision  of  priests 
and  sisters,  who  are  often  professionally  trained,  or  have  had 
much  practical  experience.  The  schools  are  run  on  self-support- 
ing lines.  The  best  example  of  industrial  education  and  work  is 
to  be  found  in  the  Zi-ka-wei  Orphanage,  Shanghai. 

58.  Wherever  there  is  a  sufficient  number  of  foreign  Roman 
Catholic  Church  members  to  call  for  special  services  of  worship 
and  spiritual  oversight,  there  is  a  secular  school  under  the  direc- 
tion of  one  of  the  religious  societies.  Over  2000,  and  possibly 
as  many  as  3000  children  of  foreigners  and  Eurasians,  are  en- 
rolled in  these  schools.  Some  students  are  boarders.  The  major 
part  of  this  educational  work  is  done  in  Tientsin,  Hankow,  Shang- 
hai, Hongkong,  and  Macao.  The  ages  of  the  students  range 
from  five  to  twenty  years.  The  work  is  generally  of  a  high 
grade,  preparing  the  students  for  Cambridge  local  examinations, 
or  college  entrance  examinations  in  the  United  States,  England, 
and  France. 

When  the  total  number  of  students  receiving  education 
at  the  hands  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  at  least  150,000,  is 
compared  with  the  total  number  of  Christians  enrolled,  almost 
2,000,000,  it  is  apparent  that  there  is  less  than  one  student  in 
their  schools  of  all  grades,  to  every  ten  Christians  reported  in 
the  membership  of  the  church.  Protestant  missions,  on  the  other 
hand,  average  over  one  student  in  Christian  schools  to  every  two 
communicants. 

59.  Two  factors  seriously  militate  against  the  educational 
work  of  this  church.  The  first  is  lack  of  funds.  Few  large 
gifts  from  home  are  received  for  educational  purposes.  Some 
of  the  societies  are  largely  dependent  upon  the  income  from  in- 
vested funds  and  property  for  the  maintenance  of  their  work  in 
China.  After  the  needs  of  the  spiritual  work  of  the  church  and 
of  the  foreign  working  force  are  met,  little  remains  for  the 
secular  education  of  the  children.  In  the  second  place,  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church  in  China  is  seriously  handicapped   by  a  small 


PRESENT  STATUS  OF  EDUCATION  29 

English-teaching  force.  IMost  priests  and  sisters  come  from  con- 
tinental countries,  and  although  familiar  with  the  English  lan- 
guage, speak  it  with  some  hesitancy.  The  Chinese  naturally 
prefer  to  secure  their  education  in  schools  where  English  is  taught 
or  is  the  chief  medium  of  instruction.  For  this  reason  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church  has  experienced  difficulty  in  attracting  and  hold- 
ing its  3-oung  people  in  its  church  schools. 


IV.    Privately  Supported  Education — Christian  and 
Non-Christian 

60.  In  the  days  before  1905,  when  the  government  system 
of  education  was  an  elaborate  scheme  of  examination,  rather  than 
of  instruction,  practically  all  schools  were  private.  A  few  at- 
tempts had  been  made  to  establish  and  maintain  institutions  of 
higher  learning  at  public  expense.  Notable  among  these  were 
the  Tung  Wen  Kuan  in  Peking  of  which  Dr.  W.  A.  P.  Martin 
was  President,  the  Pei  Yang  University  in  Tientsin,  and  Nan 
Yang  University  in  Shanghai.  For  the  founding  of  all  these, 
government  officials  had  turned  to  men  who  were  or  had  been 
Christian  missionaries. 

61.  When  in  1905  the  examinations  were  abolished  and  the 
government  began  its  great  effort  to  establish  schools  through- 
out the  country,  private  schools  of  the  old  type  did  not  at  once 
disappear,  nor  have  they  yet  done  so.  Whatever  may  have  been 
true  of  these  schools  in  an  earlier  time,  most  of  those  that  remain 
are  furnishing  an  education  but  little  adapted  to  modern  condi- 
tions.    A  recent  competent  observer  has  said  of  these  schools: 

"Visits  to  several  of  them  reveal  the  fact  that  the  teachers  are 
underpaid;  that  the  schoolrooms  are  miserably  ventilated;  that  the  teacher 
maintains  discipline  by  force  and  that  he  does  not  study  the  needs  of  his 
pupils;  that  the  students  dislike  study  and  that  many  of  them  have  lost 
their  sense  of  self-respect  through  being  constantly  repressed.  The  teacher 
usually  has  from  five  to  twenty  pupils  and  is  paid  about  2000  cash,  eighty 
cents,  per  student  per  month.  His  hours  are  from  eight  in  the  morning 
till  five  in  the  evening  with  little  or  no  time  for  rest.     Recreation  is  not 


30  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

permitted  and  were  it  allowed  the  teacher  would  be  unable  to  lead  his 
pupils.  The  usual  type  of  teacher  is  a  "lao  fu  tzu"  or  old  scholar  who  is 
chosen  for  his  knowledge  of  Chinese  characters  and  history  and  not  because 
he  knows  anything  about  modern  pedagogy.  None  of  the  western  subjects 
are  taught  in  this  type  of  school.  The  teacher  and  pupils  drone  over  the 
characters  and  laboriously  work  out  each  new  idiom;  the  former  because 
of  financial  necessity,  the  latter  because  they  are  forced  to  attend  by  unen- 
lightened parents.  It  is  the  duty  of  the  government  either  to  reorganize 
or  suppress  the  old  fashioned  private  school.  As  it  exists  to-day  it  is  a 
liability  to  the  nation." 

We  have  no  statistics  of  the  number  of  schools  of  this 
type.  It  is  safe  to  say  that  there  are  many  thousands  of  them.  It 
should  be  remembered  that  it  is  not  easy  to  make  a  clear  distinction 
between  government  and  private  schools.  Many  of  the  so-called 
government  schools  founded  in  and  after  1905  were  in  reality 
schools  supported  by  a  government  official  and  shared  his  pros- 
perity or  adversity. 

62.  There  is  a  second  class  of  private  schools  of  a  very 
different  character,  though  again  no  sharp  line  can  be  drawn. 
Even  before  the  edicts  of  1905,  forward-looking  Chinese  had 
undertaken  the  founding  of  schools  of  a  more  modern  and  better 
type  than  those  mentioned  above.  A  notable  example  is  that  of 
Mr.  Yen  Hsu,  Vice-minister  of  Education  under  the  Manchu 
Government,  who  established  in  his  own  house  in  Tientsin  a  school 
for  boys,  and  when  it  outgrew  these  limits,  erected  a  building  for 
it,  and  opened  in  the  rooms  thus  vacated  a  school  for  girls.  It 
was  this  boys'  school  which  developed  into  the  Nan  Kai  College 
of  Tientsin.  The  educational  revolution  of  1905  greatly  stimu- 
lated the  establishment  of  private  schools  of  the  modern  type,  and 
they  are  now  to  be  found  in  all  parts  of  the  country  and  are  of 
various  grades.  A  recent  and  outstanding  example  is  Amoy  Uni- 
versity, founded  by  a  gift  from  Mr.  Tan  Ka  Kee,  which  is 
reckoned  in  millions. 

The  total  number  of  private  schools  is  very  large,  far 
exceeding  the  number  of  mission  schools.  According  to  the  gov- 
ernment report  of  1916,  there  were  37,303  such  schools  of  which 
36,570  were  for  boys.     These  schools  had  1,044,824  pupils,  54,425 


PRESENT  STATUS  OF  EDUCATION  31 

teachers  and  31,227  officers.  The  annual  expenditures  were 
$3,341,828.  Of  the  total  number  of  schools,  35,156  were  lower 
primary  schools,  1,897  higher  primary,  59  middle  schools,  13  nor- 
mal schools,  17  schools  of  law  and  politics,  3  of  medicine,  9  of 
agriculture  (primary),  32  technical,  38  commercial.  How  many 
of  the  primary  schools  were  of  the  old  type  described  above  there 
is  no  means  of  knowing,  but  probably  all  of  those  above  the  pri- 
mary grade  were  more  or  less  modern,  and  personal  observation 
has  shown  that  many  of  them  are  well  housed  and  excellently 
conducted. 

A  paper  recently  prepared  by  a  competent  authority  lists 
seventy  schools  as  notable. 

63.  The  following  figures,  though  only  approximate,  show 
with  substantial  accuracy  the  extent  of  the  four  great  groups  of 
schools  in  relation  to  the  population  from  which  they  draw.  As  a 
whole  they  bear  weighty  testimony  to  the  interest  of  the  Chinese  in 
education  and  to  the  tolerance  of  the  government  toward  non- 
government schools.  On  the  other  hand,  they  clearly  forecast 
an  influence  of  the  Christian  schools  and  the  Christian  community 
on  Chinese  life  and  thought  far  exceeding  that  which  would  be 
suggested  by  the  relative  size  of  the  Christian  population. 

Total    population   of    China    about    375,000,000    to  400,000,000 

Total  Roman  Catholic  enrollment    about  2,000,000 

Total  Protestant    communicants     about  375,000 

Total  Protestant    community     about  1,000,000 

Pupils  in  Protestant    schools     about  214,000 

Pupils  in   Roman  Catholic  schools    about  150,000 

Pupils   in   private   schools    about  1,045,000 

Pupils    in   government   schools    about  4,075,000 

Total   pupils  reported  in  all  schools    about  5,475,000 

Christian  pupils   in  Protestant  schools    about  100,000 

If  the  total  population  be  counted  at  400,000,000  and 
the  total  Protestant  community  at  1,000,000,  the  Protestant  com- 
munity, which  is  one-quarter  of  one  per  cent  of  the  total  popula- 
tion, is  giving  three  and  seven-tenths  per  cent  and  receiving  one 
and  eight-tenths  per  cent  of  all  the  education  given.  In  other 
words  it  is  doing  fifteen  times  its  proportionate  share  of   the 


32  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

education  of  the  country  and  Protestant  children  are  receiving  an 
education  in  the  ratio  of  seven  to  one,  as  compared  vv^ith  the 
whole  population.  Of  the  total  population  a  little  over  one  and 
one-third  per  cent  is  in  school.  Of  the  total  Protestant  popula- 
tion about  ten  per  cent  is  in  Protestant  schools. 


PART  II 

THE  PLACE,  PURPOSE,  AND  SCOPE  OF 
CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

I.    The  Aim  of  the  Missionary  Enterprise 

64.  The  histor}^  of  modern  missions  shows  that  there  has 
been  a  constant  tendency  to  enlarge  the  purpose  of  the  enter- 
prise. The  type  of  effort  first  emphasized  was  personal  evan- 
gelism, the  presentation  to  individuals  of  the  message  of  salva- 
tion and  the  winning  of  them  to  its  acceptance.  Success  in  the 
achievement  of  this  purpose  speedily  led  to  the  organization  of 
churches,  and  to  the  effort  to  develop  the  life  of  the  Christian 
community.  Thus  to  personal  evangelism  there  was  added  in 
elementary  form,  but  destined  to  develop  more  and  more,  what 
may  be  termed  social  evangelization,  the  application  of  Chris- 
tianity to  the  life  of  a  social  group.  Early  and  increasingly  the 
sympathies  of  the  missionary  were  appealed  to  by  the  misery  of 
those  by  whom  he  was  surrounded.  Sickness,  famine,  ignorance, 
all  made  their  appeal  and  the  missionary,  because  he  was  a  Chris- 
tian, was  impelled  to  relieve  suffering  and  to  seek  to  better  con- 
ditions. Interwoven  with  the  evangelistic  motive  there  was  thus 
introduced  into  the  Christian  enterprise  the  philanthropic  mo- 
tive, of  which  hospitals,  medical  schools,  and  the  diversified  work 
of  the  Christian  Associations  are  outstanding  expressions.  Closely 
related  to  the  philanthropic  motive,  but  deserving  separate  men- 
tion, have  been  the  efforts  to  permeate  the  non-Christian  com- 
munity with  Christian  ideas  either  as  a  preparation  for  more 
aggressive  evangelistic  work  or  as  an  end  desirable  in  itself. 

33 


34  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

From  the  fact  that  the  Christian  spirit  has  expressed 
itself  in  these  various  ways  it  has  come  to  pass  that  the  modern 
missionary  movement  includes  within  itself  various  types  of  work 
which  may  he  characterized  as  evangelism,  by  which  the  Christian 
message  is  announced  and  converts  are  won ;  edification,  by  which 
there  is  built  up  a  church  with  competent  leadership;  philan- 
thropy which  seeks  to  relieve  suffering ;  and  the  permeation  of  the 
non-Christian  community  with  Christian  ideas.  It  is  unnecessary, 
as  it  would  be  impossible,  to  assign  each  missionary  undertaking 
to  one  or  the  other  of  these  types,  since  the  purposes  themselves 
are  not  mutually  exclusive  but  complementary.  The  Christian 
missionary,  confronted  by  different  and  often  by  complex  situa- 
tions, has  been  moved  by  all  these  motives,  and  the  purpose  of 
the  missionary  enterprise  as  it  exists  to-day  is  animated  by  them 
all.  That  they  are  all  Christian  and  legitimate  missionary  mo- 
tives can  hardly  be  questioned. 


II.    The  Place  of  Education  in  the  Missionary  Enterprise 

65.  In  the  development  of  the  aims  which  it  has  sought  to 
achieve,  missionary  education  has  followed  closely  along  the  path 
of  the  missionary  enterprise  in  general.  The  earliest  schools 
were  established  as  an  aid  to  evangelism.  Bafifled  in  his  attempts 
to  reach  the  adults,  the  missionary  opened  schools  as  a  means  of 
bringing  the  children  under  the  influence  of  the  Christian  mes- 
sage. As  the  Christian  community  developed,  the  edification  of 
the  church  and  the  preparation  of  preachers  and  teachers  was 
obviously  a  process  of  education  that  called  for  a  further  devel- 
opment of  schools.  For  the  permeation  of  the  non-Christian 
community  with  Christian  ideas,  schools,  although  not  the  only 
agency,  were  yet  one  of  the  most  effective.  Hospitals  were  the 
outstanding  expression  of  the  philanthropic  motive,  yet  as  sick- 
ness called  for  hospitals,  so  ignorance  called  for  schools,  and 
the  desire  to  promote  the  general  welfare  of  the  community  by 
the  spread  of  knowledge  has  been  one  of  the  motives  that  have  led 
to  the  establishment  and  maintenance  of  schools. 


PLACE,  PURPOSE  AND  SCOPE  35 

66.  This  breadth  of  purpose  is  not  only  historically  the 
product  of  the  development  of  the  missionary  enterprise  and  of 
missionary  education  in  particular,  but,  in  principle  at  least,  is  de- 
manded by  the  very  nature  of  Christianity  and  of  education.  To 
the  representative  of  Christianity  who  takes  up  his  residence 
in  a  foreign  country  under  the  impulse  of  the  Christian  motive, 
nothing  that  makes  for  the  welfare  of  the  people  can  be  a  mat- 
ter of  indifference.  He  who  says  to  the  naked  and  to  those  hun- 
gry for  food  or  for  enlightenment,  "Go  in  peace,  be  ye  warmed 
and  fed,"  yet  is  not  interested  to  see  that  they  are  warmed  and 
fed,  has  not  exemplified  but  denied  the  Christian  spirit.  He  has 
not  represented  but  misrepresented  Christianity.  It  is  because 
the  Christian  missionary  has  recognized  this  fact  that  he  has 
responded  to  all  types  of  need  and  has  broadened  the  scope  of 
the  missionary  enterprise.  And  because  education  is  the  only 
remedy  for  some  of  the  ills  with  which  society  is  afflicted,  and  is 
an  important  factor  in  practically  every  department  of  activity 
which  makes  either  for  the  spread  of  the  Christian  religion  or  the 
promotion  of  human  welfare,  education  also  has  been  in  purpose 
evangelistic,  edificatory,  permeative,  and  philanthropic. 

It  must,  of  course,  be  recognized  that  neither  the  indi- 
vidual missionary  nor  a  group,  nor  all  the  missionaries  of  a  given 
society,  nor  all  the  Christian  forces  in  a  given  country,  can  re- 
spond to  every  call  of  human  need.  But  the  disposition  of  the 
missionary  to  respond  to  any  need  of  the  people  in  his  region  is 
a  normal  expression  of  the  Christian  spirit,  and  no  form  or  type 
of  education  which  the  people  of  a  given  area  need  can  be  ex- 
cluded on  principle  from  the  scope  of  the  missionary  enterprise 
without  its  becoming  so  far  unchristian.  Strict  limitations  may 
be  imposed  either  by  lack  of  resources  or  by  the  fact  that  the 
need  is  adequately  met  by  some  other  agency.  But  it  is  essential 
to  the  maintenance  of  the  Christian  point  of  view  that  it  be  rec- 
ognized that  whatever  pertains  to  human  welfare  and  is  achievable 
through  education  is  in  principle  within  the  scope  of  missionary 
education. 

67.  This  point  of  view  is  not  modified,  except  to  receive 


36  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

new  emphasis,  when  for  the  term  missionary  we  substitute  the 
word  Christian.  Most  of  the  Christian  schools  in  China  were 
founded  by  missionaries,  and  most  of  those  above  the  elementary 
grade  are  still  largely  supported  by  missionary  organizations,  but 
this,  we  hope  and  believe,  is  only  a  temporary  state  of  affairs. 
Already  Chinese  are  taking  a  larger  share  in  the  management  of 
the  Christian  schools.  As  the  Chinese  church  develops,  Chinese 
participation  in  the  direction  of  Christian  education  should  con- 
stantly increase,  the  missionary  retiring  from  the  position  of  di- 
rector to  that  of  adviser  and  helper,  and  eventually  withdrawing 
altogether,  leaving  behind  a  strpng  Chinese  Christian  community 
able  to  direct  and  support  its  own  educational  work.  While  the 
responsibility  of  the  missionary  might  conceivably  be  limited  to 
certain  types  of  work  especially  related  to  the  direct  building  up 
of  the  Christian  community,  such  a  self-directing  and  self-sup- 
porting Christian  community  could  scarcely  be  Christian,  if  it 
were  indifferent  to  any  phase  of  the  welfare  of  the  people.  A 
Christian  church  which  turned  its  whole  activity  in  education 
back  upon  itself  would  be  in  grave  danger  of  becoming  unchris- 
tian in  spirit. 


III.    TJic    Permanence    of    Christian    Education    in    China 

68.  If  then  Christian  education  has  been  a  necessary  and 
legitimate  part  of  the  missionary  enterprise,  what  are  the  pros- 
pects of  its  permanence?  Missions,  if  they  are  successful,  will 
eventually  cease,  having  made  themselves  unnecessary  by  their 
success.  Will  the  same  be  true  of  the  Christian  schools  which 
they  have  founded?  Or,  by  the  side  of  the  extensive  system  of 
schools  which  the  nation  as  such  will  develop,  will  there  be  a 
permanent  place  for  that  system  of  private  education  which  the 
missionary  forces  are  now  developing  with  the  cooperation  of  the 
Chinese,  but  which  will  eventually  pass  into  the  hands  of  the 
Chinese  Christians? 

69.  The  experience  of  other  countries  indicates  that  a  con- 
siderable number  of   schools  supplementary  to  thos?   supported 


PLACE,  PURPOSE  AND  SCOPE  37 

from  public  funds  and  controlled  by  government  officials  is  de- 
sirable. Although  the  whole  task  of  education  is  manifestly  too 
heavy  a  burden  for  private  initiative,  yet  as  a  supplement  to  schools 
managed  by  the  government,  schools  established  by  private  en- 
terprise have  a  distinct  place.  They  furnish  opportunity  for  in- 
dividual initiative  and  experiment  and  prevent  the  undue  stereo- 
typing of  education.  They  give  opportunity  for  the  exertion  of 
a  more  positive  religious  influence  than  is  possible  in  publicly 
supported  schools.  The  Japanese  government,  which,  since  the 
restoration  in  1868,  has  made  extraordinary  progress  in  devel- 
oping its  schools,  has  been  rather  inhospitable  to  the  develop- 
ment of  those  privately  supported.  Yet,  if  we  are  correctly  in- 
formed, Japan  has  in  recent  years  taken  a  much  more  favorable 
attitude  toward  such  institutions,  removing  disabilities  under 
which  they  formerly  labored,  and  encouraging  their  further  de- 
velopment, 

70.  The  history  of  the  Chinese  people  makes  it  improbable 
that  they  will  permanently,  if  at  all,  oppose  the  maintenance  of 
non-government  schools.  To  the  demand  that  all  schools  shall 
meet  certain  educational  standards  there  can  be  no  legitimate  ob- 
jection. The  government  is  clearly  within  its  rights  in  setting 
up  such  standards.  There  may  be  for  a  time  a  disposition  to 
condition  registration  on  the  discontinuance  of  certain  phases  of 
religious  education,  and  registration  might  be  too  dearly  pur- 
chased at  this  price.  But  it  is  not  in  accordance  with  the  historic 
spirit  of  the  Chinese  people  to  control  education  to  the  extent  of 
forbidding  private  schools.  Until  a  recent  period  all  schools  were 
private,  and  private  schools,  old  and  new,  are  still  numbered  by 
the  thousands.  (Cf.  Sections  60-63.)  The  policy  of  depending  on 
private  initiative  is,  of  course,  abandoned  once  for  all,  but  it  is 
unlikely  that  in  developing  a  government  system  of  education 
the  Chinese  will  swing  so  far  to  the  other  extreme  as  to  prohibit 
all  private  schools.  This  is  especially  unlikely  to  occur  with 
respect  to  the  Christian  schools  if  they  are  thoroughly  good 
schools,  patriotic  and  national  in  atmosphere  and  influence,  avoid- 
ing all  exotic  and  foreign  characteristics,  promptly  and  fully  meet- 


38  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

ing  all  government  requirements  and  cooperating  with  govern- 
ment education  in  all  practicable  ways,  and  at  the  same  time  fur- 
nishing a  healthy  variant  from  the  uniform  standard,  and  pro- 
ducing for  the  changing  life  of  China  a  Christian  group,  forward- 
looking  and  thoughtful,  disciplined  and  self-controlled.  In  build- 
ing up  in  China  Christian  education  of  this  type  we  may  be  as- 
sured that  we  are  building  for  a  long  future. 

71.  China  needs  the  influence  of  Christianity  to  assist  her 
in  ridding  herself  of  certain  elements  of  traditional  national  life 
and  certain  modes  of  thought  which,  whatever  their  effect  in  past 
ages,  are  now  a  hindrance  to  her  progress,  and  which,  therefore, 
it  is  desirable  for  China's  sake  to  modify. 

We  must  not  forget  that  although  "China  no  longer  leads 
the  world,  she  has  in  forgotten  days  led  mankind  in  ethics,  edu- 
cation, culture,  invention,  and  art,  and  that  China  is  not  only 
entitled  to,  but  is  really  worthy  of  the  unfeigned  respect  of  the 
world."  There  are  many  admirable  qualities  of  the  Chinese  peo- 
ple which  the  invasion  of  western  ideas  threatens  to  destroy. 
Against  such  destruction  the  Christian  movement  ought  to  set 
itself  with  all  firmness.  It  is  with  justifiable  pride  in  his  own 
people  that  Alfred  Sze  says : 

"Fortunately  for  the  peace  and  security  of  the  world  the  peaceful 
development  of  China  and  her  millions  is  an  absolute  certainty  unless, 
indeed,  that  development  is  deflected  by  foreign  agency  into  channels  of 
militarism.  The  Chinese  development  of  China,  if  I  may  put  it  that  way, 
must  make  for  peace  if  only  because  the  whole  of  Chinese  culture  rests 
on  the  power  and  appeal  of  moral  force.  The  entire  body  of  Confucian 
teaching  centres  around  that  conception.  We  hold  material  force  so  meanly 
that  the  soldier  is  the  lowest  member  in  our  social  hierarchy  and  this 
Chinese  valuation  of  the  fighting  man  will  remain  unchanged  as  long  as 
the  Chinese  people  are  allowed  to  progress  along  the  lines  of  their  own 
national  characteristics." 

Trust  in  the  power  of  right  rather  than  in  might  and 
force,  the  general  acceptance  of  reason  and  fair  dealing  as  stand- 
ards of  action,  belief  in  the  value  of  education  to  the  nation's 
well  being  and   in  moral  education  as  of   supreme  worth,  the 


PLACE,  PURPOSE  AND  SCOPE  39 

habitual  contentment  which  shows  itself  in  cheerfulness  and  pa- 
tience under  difficulties,  the  courtesy  and  gentleness  which  char- 
acterize most  of  the  Chinese  both  of  higher  and  lower  classes, 
the  modesty  of  women,  the  respect  for  the  aged  and  the  learned, 
the  sense  of  obligation  to  care  for  relatives  even  several  degrees 
removed,  the  cherishing  of  the  memory  of  ancestors,  the  hereditary 
good  taste  in  art  and  architecture,  are  all  of  them  valuable  assets 
of  the  Chinese  people,  of  which  no  movement  originating  in  the 
West  ought  to  be  permitted  to  rob  them.  Even  more  fundamental 
is  the  recognition  by  the  Chinese  of  a  moral  order  pervading 
the  universe,  inflexibly  and  unerringly  just,  as  well  as  benevolent. 
72.  On  the  other  hand  there  are  serious  elements  of  their 
social  inheritance  which  are  distinctly  harmful  and  are  an  obstacle 
to  their  taking  the  place  which  they  might  otherwise  take  in  the 
family  of  nations. 

Among  these  elements  is  the  tendency  to  look  backward 
rather  than  forward,  to  put  reverence  for  the  dead  above  the  in- 
terests of  the  living  and  the  yet  unborn,  to  adhere  to  traditional 
opinions,  and  to  ask  what  the  sages  said  rather  than  what  the  facts 
are  and  to  what  conclusion  they  lead.  It  may  be  freely  admitted 
and  contended  that  there  is  something  beautiful  and  admirable  in 
China's  reverence  for  the  past.  Yet  if  Benjamin  Kidd  is  right  in 
his  contention  that  the  future  of  the  world  belongs  to  those  nations 
that  are  characterized  by  their  forward  look,  and  are  willing  to 
sacrifice  their  present  not  to  the  past  but  to  the  future,  it  follows 
that  China's  highest  welfare  demands  a  change  in  these  respects. 

Other  elements  of  China's  mental  and  social  inheritance 
which  hinder  her  progress  are  the  limited  scope  of  social  interest; 
the  restriction  of  concern  to  the  family,  clan,  or  province,  rather 
than  its  extension  to  the  nation;  the  lack  of  a  broad-horizoned 
public  spirit,  and  of  unselfish  patriotism  on  the  part  of  the  ruling 
class ;  a  tendency  to  use  public  office  for  private  gain  and  to  regard 
this  practice  as  normal ;  the  prevalence  among  the  people  of  super- 
stition and  belief  in  demons ;  the  lack  of  religious  basis  for  ethical 
thinking ;  the  agnostic  attitude  of  Confucius  on  the  fundamental 
questions  of  religion  and  the  construction  of  his  ethics  on  a  purely 


40  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

humanitarian  basis ;  all  these  still  exercise  a  powerful  and  on  the 
whole  an  unhappy  influence  on  ethical  thought  and  moral  life.  In 
interesting  i  elation  to  this  influence  of  Confucius'  agnosticism  is 
the  tendency  to  deify  him,  making  him  not  only  the  expounder  of 
ethics,  but  the  object  of  worship  as  divine. 

There  are  certain  defects  of  family  life  due  to  the  living 
of  three  or  four  generations  in  the  same  house,  to  polygamy,  which 
is  still  practised,  to  illiteracy,  which  is  widely  prevalent,  and  to  the 
inferior  place  which  is  assigned  to  woman.  There  are  undoubtedly 
many  instances  of  beautiful  family  life  in  China.  But  it  is  the 
testimony  of  the  Chinese  themselves  that  family  life  as  a  whole 
greatly  needs  the  influence  of  the  Christian  ideals. 

73.  A  Christian  education  having  its  beginning  in  a  mission- 
ary movement  coming  from  the  West,  will  naturally  bring  with  it 
certain  elements  and  characteristics  of  western  Christian  education, 
which  are  especially  adapted  to  meet  the  needs  of  China  and  to  con- 
tribute to  her  welfare. 

As  we  recognize  that  there  are  certain  elements  of  the 
national  life  of  China  which  need  to  be  corrected,  so  we  hasten 
to  confess  that  it  is  wholly  fallacious  to  assume  that  everything 
western  or  all  that  is  useful  in  the  West  will  be  a  useful  importa- 
tion into  China.  On  the  contrary  we  must  distinctly  recognize  that 
there  is  a  rather  long  list  of  elements  of  western  civilization  as 
found  in  so-called  Christian  lands  that  it  would  be  distinctly  harm- 
ful to  reproduce  in  China.  In  this  class  we  must  include  the  natu- 
lal  arrogance  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  in  his  attitude  toward  other 
nationalities,  and  the  rudeness  with  which  he  often  treats  those 
whom  he  considers  his  inferiors;  the  militaristic  spirit,  and  the  dis- 
position quickly  to  resort  to  force  for  the  settlement  of  difficulties ; 
the  extravagance  and  luxury  of  the  well-to-do  classes  and  the 
disposition  of  those  of  moderate  means  to  consume  their  earnings 
on  things  that  do  not  really  contribute  to  their  highest  welfare; 
the  western  industrial  system,  which  is  based  on  competition 
rather  than  cooperation,  subordinating  human  interests  to  the 
economic  machine,  and  sacrificing  persons  to  profits ;  sectarian 
ecclesiasticism  and  the  perpetuation  of  divisions  created  for  reasons 


PLACE,  PURPOSE  AND  SCOPE  4t 

which  long  ago  ceased  to  be  in  force;  immodesty  in  dress  and 
amusements;  slowness  to  recognize  the  full  value  of  the  contribu- 
tion which  women  make  to  the  common  welfare,  and  to  grant  them 
their  full  share  in  the  development  and  conduct  of  community  and 
national  life. 

74.  Yet  while  we  confess  with  shame  these  sins  of  westejn 
and  nominally  Christian  civilization,  we  must  also  recognize  with 
gratitude  to  God  that  our  inheritance  includes  certain  elements, 
partly  of  distinctively  Christian  origin,  partly  rather  western  than 
Christian  in  origin,  which  it  would  be  a  kindness  to  China  to  trans- 
plant into  the  soil  of  her  national  life.  Among  these  we  would 
name : 

a.  Physical  (including  biological)  science,  so  taught  as 
to  create  a  reverence  for  the  authority  of  facts  rather  than  of 
ancient  and  traditional  opinions,  and  an  ability  to  discover  truth 
by  interpretation  of  facts.  Physical  science  will  correct  China's 
traditionalism  and  furnish  her  a  great  instrument  for  the  enrich- 
ment of  her  life. 

b.  Applied  science,  including  medicine,  social  science, 
engineering.  In  this  there  is  not  only  a  valuable  agency  for  the 
conservation  of  health  and  the  improvement  of  physical  conditions, 
but  a  great  stimulus  to  the  intellectual  life  and  the  development  of 
public  spirit. 

c.  Historical  and  social  science.  Rightly  taught  this  will 
not  only  produce  the  results  mentioned  above  as  resulting  from 
the  study  of  physical  science,  but  will  furnish  the  knowledge  and 
discernment  necessary  for  the  development  of  a  higher  type  of 
social  and  political  life,  a  nobler  citizenship,  and  a  more  unselfish 
and  efficient  statesmanship.  It  is  scarcely  possible  to  state  too 
strongly  the  benefits  that  may  come  to  China  from  the  study  of 
science  in  its  varied  aspects  and  the  acquisition  of  the  scientific 
spirit.  This  acquisition  will  affect  favorably  every  phase  of 
Chinese  life. 

d.  The  application  of  the  Christian  principle  to  indus- 
trial and  commercial  life.  What  is  needed  here  is  not  the  pro- 
mulgation of  western  business  methods,  which  are  themselves  far 


42  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

from  being  thoroughly  Christianized,  but  a  fresh  statement  of 
Christian  ethics  as  appHed  to  the  conditions  existing  and  develop- 
ing in  China,  with  an  effort  to  train  men  for  the  successful  man- 
agement of  business  enterprises  on  Christian  principles. 

e.  The  value  of  the  physical  aspects  of  life,  cleanliness, 
health,  bodily  vigor,  not  only  as  adding  to  the  joy  of  life,  but  as  fur- 
nishing the  basis  for  the  vigorous  and  successful  prosecution  of 
great  enterprises. 

f .  The  physical  and  moral  values  of  play  and  wholesome 
recreation  and  their  place  in  the  life  of  young  and  old. 

g.  The  value  of  the  human  personality  as  such,  especially 
of  the  child  unable  to  fight  his  own  battle,  but  entitled  to  a  normal 
childhood  both  for  its  own  sake  and  as  the  basis  for  a  normal 
youth  and  manhood  and  womanhood. 

h.  The  paramount  importance  of  normal  family  life, 
dominated  by  mutual  affection  and  the  consideration  of  all  for  the 
welfare  of  all. 

i.  The  investigative  attitude  of  mind  with  respect  to  the 
whole  task  of  education,  the  recognition  of  the  fact  that  the  ideal 
educational  method  has  not  yet  been  discovered  in  China,  in  Eu- 
rope, or  in  America,  and  that  its  discovery  must  come  about 
through  a  process  of  experimentation  and  adaptation  to  the  con- 
ditons  and  needs  of  the  country  in  which  the  education  is  to  be 
carried  on, 

j.  An  emphasis  on  the  supreme  significance  in  the  pro- 
cess of  education  of  the  development  of  character  and  the  produc- 
tion of  worthy  and  efficient  members  of  society,  together  with  a 
recognition  of  the  inadequacy  of  ethical  maxims  dissociated  from 
religious  faith  to  create  the  ideal  person  or  community  and  of  the 
consequent  necessity  of  religion  as  the  dynamic  factor  in  the  life 
of  the  individual  and  the  community. 

75.  It  is  then  of  the  very  essence  of  the  Christian  principle 
that  we  should  seek  to  reproduce  in  China,  not  all  the  elements  of 
western  civilization,  or  all  that  are  traditionally  associated  with 
historical  Christianity,  but  only  those  which  will  constitute  a  valu- 
able contribution  to  the  life  of  the  Chinese.     Because  we  are  con- 


PLACE,  PURPOSE  AND  SCOPE  43 

vinced  that  Christianity  has  a  vital  contribution  to  make  to  China's 
welfare,  preeminently  those  religious  and  moral  principles  which 
are  most  central  in  it,  we  wish  to  give  it  to  China.  Education 
has  been  shown  by  experience  to  be  one  of  the  most  efficient 
agencies  for  the  expression  and  impartation  of  those  principles.  It 
follows,  therefore,  that  at  least  until  these  valuable  elements  of 
Christian  civilization  have  become  thoroughly  rooted  in  Chinese 
life,  Christian  education,  in  the  sense  in  which  we  have  already 
defined  it,  will  be  needed  as  an  agency  through  which  the  Christian 
community  will  perpetuate  and  strengthen  its  own  life  and  make  its 
contribution  to  the  highest  welfare  of  the  Chinese  people.  In 
planning  therefore  for  a  system  of  Christian  education,  the  Chris- 
tian forces  of  China,  both  Chinese  and  foreign,  are  not  building  up 
a  structure  that  will  probably  soon  be  superfluous,  but  one  which 
will,  so  far  as  can  now  be  foreseen,  be  of  permanent  value.  It  is 
indeed  not  unthinkable  that  there  should  come  a  time  when  the 
Christian  church  can  make  its  contribution  to  the  life  of  China 
more  effectively  than  through  the  maintenance  of  separate  schools. 
But  that  time  cannot  now  be  foreseen. 

76.  Yet  in  making  this  affirmation  of  the  probable  perma- 
nence of  a  system  of  Christian  education,  it  must  be  distinctly 
recognized  that  the  part  for  which  the  Christian  forces  become 
responsible  is  but  a  small  portion  of  the  whole  educational  task, 
and  that  the  affirmation  of  probable  permanence  applies  to  the 
system,  not  to  each  particular  part  of  it  as  it  now  exists. 

When  one  considers  the  extent  of  China  and  its  vast 
population,  and  when  one  remembers  the  large  number  of  schools 
of  many  types  which  would  be  necessary  to  meet  the  educational 
needs  of  the  whole  people,  and  on  the  other  hand  reflects  upon  the 
small  proportion  of  the  population  that  is  Christian  and  the  limited 
resources  of  the  Christian  community  and  of  the  missionary 
bodies,  it  is  at  once  evident  that  the  combined  Christian  forces  can 
do  but  a  small  fraction  of  the  total  educational  work  that  China 
needs  to  have  done. 

And  on  the  other  hand,  when  we  observe  that,  although 
the  new  education  conducted   by  the  government  has  all   been 


44  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

developed  since  1900,  yet  the  pupils  in  government  schools  out- 
number those  in  Christian  schools  in  the  ratio  of  20  to  i,  and 
when  we  take  into  account  the  earnestness,  intelligence,  and  vigor 
with  which  government  educators  are  pressing  forward  in  the 
further  development  of  the  government  system,  it  becomes  evident 
that  whatever  the  resources  of  the  Christian  forces  might  be,  they 
would  have  no  obligation  and  no  opportunity  to  fill  any  large  part 
proportionately  of  the  educational  field. 

Moreover,  a  particular  piece  of  educational  work  which 
tlie  Christian  forces  may  and  ought  to  undertake  to-day,  they  may 
perhaps  with  equal  propriety  discontinue  when  the  government 
has  more  fully  developed  its  system  of  schools.  The  educational 
task  for  the  accomplishment  of  which  we  believe  the  Christian 
forces  will  always  be  responsible,  however  large  in  itself,  is  small 
in  proportion  to  that  of  the  nation  as  a  whole.  Since  we  can  not 
forecast  the  future  it  is  always  subject  to  re-definition,  both  as 
respects  its  scope  and  its  extent. 

The  affirmation  of  permanence  must  be  made  not  of  mis- 
sionary education,  which  involves  the  presence  of  the  foreigner 
and  at  least  partial  foreign  support,  but  distinctly  of  Christian 
education,  which  is  developed  in  view  and  expectation  of  the  time 
when  the  foreigner  will  withdraw  and  leave  all  Christian  schools 
to  be  directed  and  supported  by  a  Chinese  Christian  community 
fully  able  to  undertake  this  work  for  itself. 

IV.  The  Specific  and  Immediate  Task  of  Christian  Education 

77.  If  then  the  limitation  of  the  resources  of  the  Christian 
forces  and  the  responsibility  and  the  large  resources  of  the  govern- 
ment involve  obvious  limitations  of  the  educational  field  which  the 
Christian  forces  can  occupy;  and  if  the  Christian  system  is  being 
developed  with  a  view  to  its  future  control  and  support  by  the 
Chinese  church,  precisely  what  is  the  task  which  these  forces 
should  undertake?  For  what  classes  of  the  community  may  Chris- 
tian education  properly  be  conducted  and  what  is  the  specific  end 
which  it  should  seek  to  achieve  with  respect  to  them  ? 


PLACE,  PURPOSE  AND  SCOPE  45 

78.  As  we  have  studied  the  work  of  Christian  schools  in 
China,  they  have  suggested  to  us  four  answers  to  this  question.  A 
Christian  education  may  be  conducted : 

a.  Solely  for  Christians  and  for  the  children  of  Chris- 
tian parents,  with  the  purpose  of  training  them  for  life  and  pro- 
viding the  church  with  a  working  staff, 

b.  Chiefly  for  non-Christians,  for  the  purpose  of  winning 
them  to  Christianity  and  making  them  serviceable  members  of  the 
Christian  community. 

c.  Chiefly  for  non-Christians,  not  primarily,  however, 
with  a  view  to  their  conversion  but  to  their  larger  equipment  for 
life  and  the  gradual  permeation  of  the  non-Christian  community 
with  Christian  ideas. 

d.  For  both  Christians  and  non-Christians,  with  a  view 
to  the  development  of  a  strong  Christian  community,  a  purpose 
which  includes  an  increase  in  its  numbers,  but  especially  an  im- 
provement in  the  quality  of  its  life  and  the  development  of  its 
influence  and  effectiveness. 

79.  Let  it  be  clearly  recognized  that  the  acceptance  of  any 
one  of  these  definitions  would  not  contravene  the  assertion  made 
above  that  Christian  education  to  be  true  to  itself  must  recognize 
that,  in  principle,  any  kind  of  education  useful  to  China  is  within 
the  possible  scope  of  Christian  education.  Consistently  with 
this  principle  any  one  of  the  four  definitions  of  scope  and  purpose 
may  be  adopted  as  defining  the  field  in  which  Christian  education 
may  most  effectively  work  in  order  to  make  its  largest  contribution 
to  the  well-being  of  the  Chinese  people. 

Let  it  also  be  observed  respecting  all  four  definitions,  but 
especially  respecting  the  fourth,  that  the  purpose  as  stated  is  not 
that  of  a  single  school,  but  of  Christian  education  as  a  whole. 
The  acceptance  of  the  fourth  definition  would  itself  call  for  a  co- 
ordinated system  of  schools,  since  no  one  school  alone  could 
achieve  the  proposed  result  and  even  many  uncoordinated  schools 
could,  so  to  speak,  achieve  it  only  by  accident.  Each  school  in 
such  a  system  would  of  necessity  have  a  specific  purpose  con- 
tributory  to  the  comprehensive   end.     In   accordance   with   this 


46  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

specific  purpose  and  consistently  with  its  place  in  the  system  it 
might  be  limited  to  a  particular  class  of  the  community,  as  for 
example,  a  theological  seminary  might  be  limited  to  Christians 
who  had  already  completed  a  certain  course  of  study.  On  the 
other  hand  certain  features  would,  if  this  ideal  be  adopted,  be 
constant  elements  in  all  the  schools. 

80.  Criticism  of  the  first  three  policies 

a.  The  first  policy  as  applied  to  a  single  school,  and 
still  more  to  the  whole  body  of  Christian  schools,  tends  to  un- 
healthy inbreeding.  Isolating  the  Christian  youth  from  their  non- 
Christian  fellows  in  the  formative  period  of  their  lives  deprives 
them  of  the  normal  opportunity  for  Christian  activity  and  tends 
to  diminish  their  effectiveness  as  Christians. 

b.  The  second  policy,  making  no  adequate  provision  for 
the  education  of  the  youth  of  the  Christian  community,  either 
ignores  the  greatest  source  of  power  within  reach  of  the  church, 
or  requires  supplementing  by  a  second  system  of  schools.  It 
might  conceivably  express  a  legitimate  purpose  of  some  schools, 
but  not  of  Christian  education  as  a  whole.  Even  if  the  first  and 
second  policies  be  combined,  some  schools  being  conducted  on 
one  plan  and  some  on  the  other,  the  result  would  be  an  unhealthy 
separation  of  things  that  are  better  united. 

c.  The  third  policy  is  open  to  the  serious  objection  of 
making  no  provision  for  the  development  of  a  self-propagating 
and  self-perpetuating  Chinese  Christianity.  It  lays  upon  a  for- 
eign system  of  Christianity  the  impossible  task  of  transforming 
the  moral  life  of  China  from  without  and  this,  too,  without  mak- 
ing it  vitally  Christian.  Under  some  circumstances  a  given 
school  might  be  conducted  with  such  an  aim.  As  a  general  pol- 
icy for  Christian  education  in  China  it  is  quite  inadequate. 

81.  Reasons  for  the  fourth  policy 

a.  It  provides  the  most  effective  method  of  achieving 
all  the  ends  contemplated  in  all  the  other  plans.     Thus,  it  opens 


PLACE,  PURPOSE  AND  SCOPE  47 

the  possibility,  to  say  the  least,  by  not  restricting  the  Christian 
schools  to  Christian  children,  of  educating  them  in  an  atmos- 
phere more  calculated  to  make  strong  personalities  and  sturdy 
Christians. 

b.  It  clearly  differentiates  the  task  of  Christian  educa- 
tion from  that  of  government  and  other  non-Christian  schools, 
while  also  making  itself  contributory  to  the  legitimate  aims  of 
such  education. 

c.  It  permits  all  necessary  or  desirable  differentiation 
between  schools  in  accordance  with  their  specific  purposes,  but 
enables  each  to  make  its  contribution  to  the  total  result. 

d.  It  aims  at  the  creation  of  a  moral  and  religious  force, 
personal  and  social,  which  is  itself  Chinese  and  an  integral  part 
of  Chinese  life,  a  force  which  can  affect  that  life  as  no  foreign 
agency  or  institution  can.  It  thus  recognizes  the  vital  and  uni- 
versal character  of  the  Christian  religion. 

e.  It  looks  to  and  prepares  for  the  ultimate  withdrawal 
of  the  foreign  missionary  forces,  leaving  to  a  Chinese  Christian 
church  the  completion  of  the  task  which  the  foreign  missionary 
has  begun. 

f.  It  proposes  to  the  Christian  forces  at  work  in  China 
an  ideal  large  enough  and  high  enough  to  call  for  enthusiastic  co- 
operation, yet  one  that  is  not  beyond  the  limits  of  the  possible. 
Recent  history  especially  in  Japan  and  Germany  has  shown  that 
the  point  of  view,  the  ideal  and  the  mode  of  thought  of  a  people 
can  be  profoundly  changed  in  one  or  two  generations,  and  that 
the  process  by  which  they  are  so  changed  is  education,  largely 
the  education  of  the  youth  in  the  schools.  Intelligent  and  per- 
sistent pursuit  of  a  goal  clearly  defined,  may  in  half  a  century 
result  in  the  creation  within  China  of  an  influential  community 
representing  the  highest  ideals  of  personal,  social  and  national 
life,  a  Christian  democracy  within  the  larger  democracy  of  the 
nation,  not  foreign  to  the  larger  unit  but  a  loyal  and  integral 
part  of  it. 

82.    Although  all  these  reasons  may  properly  be  urged  for 
the  adoption  of  the  specific  and  immediate  goal  of  Christian  edu- 


48  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

cation,  that  is,  the  development  of  a  strong  Christian  community, 
and  are  in  the  judgment  of  the  Commission  decisive  considerations 
for  such  adoption,  yet  this  adoption  should  never  be  permitted 
to  obscure  the  larger  view  previously  set  forth  in  this  report 
which  recognizes  that  every  useful  kind  of  education  is  on  prin- 
ciple includible  within  the  scope  of  Christian  education,  and  that 
there  may  arise  situations  when  the  higher  principle  will  set  aside 
the  lower. 

Since  it  is  of  the  essence  of  the  Christian  spirit  to  desire 
to  do  good  to  all  men  as  we  have  opportunity,  and  since  it  is  also 
essential  to  the  proper  development  of  the  Christian  community 
that  it  possess  and  express  in  conduct  the  spirit  of  Christian 
service — the  impulse  to  benefit  their  fellow  men  without  too  care- 
ful calculation  of  the  reflex  benefit  to  the  church  itself — Christian 
education  must  not  too  strictly  confine  itself  to  measures  which 
are  directed  solely  toward  the  development  of  the  Christian  com- 
munity. To  be  true  to  itself  it  must  be  sensitive  to  human  need 
as  such  and  responsive  to  its  call.  For  this  reason  Christian 
schools  must  in  general  be  open  to  Christians  and  non-Christians 
without  distinction,  and,  so  far  as  resources  permit,  schools  whose 
distinctive  purpose  is  philanthropic  should  be  included  in  the 
scheme  of  Christian  education.  It  is  especially  desirable  that  the 
Chinese  Christians  should  themselves  develop  such  schools  as  an 
expression  of  their  Christian  life. 

83.  Holding  the  balance  between  these  two  courses  will  not 
always  be  easy.  But  it  will  be  a  great  gain  if  the  Christian  forces 
can  recognize  that  their  primary  and  immediate  task  is  the  build- 
ing up  of  a  Christian  community  possessing  all  the  qualities  that 
will  enable  it  to  become  a  force  that  will  ultimately  make  China  a 
Christian  nation.  Although  they  may  not  hold  themselves  with 
absolute  rigor  within  the  limits  of  this  task,  they  will  gain  in 
power  and  ultimate  effectiveness  if  they  depart  from  it  only  when 
it  is  clear  that  they  must  do  so  to  be  true  to  their  fundamental 
Christian  character. 


PLACE,  PURPOSE  AND  SCOPE  49 


V.    The  Scope  of  Christian  Education 

84.  The  extent  of  the  educational  work  which  the  Christian 
forces  ought  to  undertake  cannot  be  determined  on  an  a  priori 
basis.  It  is  a  question  of  expediency  in  the  nobler  sense  of  that 
term.  Account  must  be  taken  of  the  available  resources,  human 
and  financial,  the  educational  facilities  provided  by  the  govern- 
ment and  the  extent  to  which  the  particular  type  of  education  is 
essential  to  the  Christian  enterprise. 

85.  The  purpose  of  Christian  education  requires  that  it 
shall  include  all  the  types  of  education  which  are  necessary  for 
the  development  of  a  normal  Christian  community,  except  such 
as  are  adequately  provided  for  by  other  agencies.  Nor  must  the 
boundary  line  be  so  strictly  drawn  as  to  exclude  educational  ef- 
forts which  are  the  normal  expression  of  the  spirit  of  Christian 
philanthropy. 

86.  On  the  other  hand  the  principle  of  economy  and  the 
limited  resources  for  Christian  education  demand  that  there  be 
left  to  the  government  and  individuals  all  those  enterprises  which 
they  can  adequately  undertake. 

87.  Economy  and  the  Christian  spirit  of  cooperation  re- 
quire that  the  Christian  forces  shall  seek  wherever  possible  to  co- 
operate with  the  government.  This  cooperation  may  take  several 
different  forms.  There  may  be  instances  in  which  the  Chris- 
tian forces  enter  into  partnership  with  the  government  in  the  con- 
duct of  a  school,  each  contributing  that  which  it  is  best  able  to 
contribute,  and  perhaps  sharing  the  expense.  Such  cooperation 
already  exists  in  at  least  one  case,  and  we  are  recommending  that 
it  be  put  into  effect,  if  found  practicable,  in  another  instance, 
where  the  Christian  forces  and  the  government  are  conducting 
special  schools  in  the  same  subject  side  by  side. 

In  many  more  cases  it  is  practicable  for  the  Christian 
forces  to  exert  a  moral  and  religious  influence  on  the  students 
of  a  government  school,  the  authorities  of  the  school  encourag- 
ing or  at  least  not  objecting  to  the  undertaking  of  such  work. 


50  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

This  type  of  cooperation  has  been  developed  by  the  Young  Men's 
Christian  Association  and  the  Young  Women's  Christian  As- 
sociation, and  is  to  be  strongly  commended. 

When  the  essential  aims  of  Christian  education  can  be 
achieved  in  either  of  these  ways  it  is  not  expedient  for  the  Chris- 
tian schools  to  attempt  to  duplicate  the  work  of  the  government 
or  to  compete  with  it.  There  may  be  whole  departments  of  edu- 
cation which  can  best  be  dealt  with  in  this  way.  We  raise  the 
question  whether  this  is  not  true  of  engineering  and  applied  sci- 
ence in  general. 

88.  A  third  type  of  cooperation  is  illustrated  in  the  Train- 
ing School  for  Physical  Directors  conducted  in  Shanghai  by  the 
Young  Women's  Christian  Association.  A  large  proportion  of 
the  young  women  trained  in  this  school  become  physical  directors 
in  government  schools.  The  Young  Women's  Christian  Asso- 
ciation is  thus  cooperating  in  government  education  at  a  point  at 
which  its  development  is  distinctly  for  the  benefit  of  the  woman- 
hood of  China.  In  many  cases  the  graduates  of  this  school  are 
the  principal  Christian  influence  in  the  government  school. 

89.  The  question  whether  cooperation  between  Christian 
schools  and  the  government  may  take  the  form  of  a  government 
grant  toward  the  support  of  a  Christian  school  is  one  on  which 
there  is  wide  difference  of  opinion  among  Christian  educators.  It 
deserves  careful  study  in  view  of  present  conditions  in  China  and 
probable  tendencies.  What  is  certain  is,  on  the  one  hand,  that  a 
school  which  accepts  such  aid  should  loyally  render  the  service  in 
Consideration  of  which  the  aid  is  granted  and,  on  the  other,  should 
not  accept  money  from  any  source,  government  or  private,  under 
conditions  which  will,  by  stipulation  or  implication,  abridge  the 
liberty  of  the  school  to  offer  religious,  ethical,  or  social  instruction, 
or  control  the  character  of  this  teaching. 

90.  What  the  Christian  forces  ought  to  undertake  in  the 
field  of  education  must  be  determined  from  time  to  time  on  the 
basis  of  existing  conditions.  With  a  change  of  conditions  the  de- 
cision may  be  reversed.  Such  changes  of  decision  are  much  less 
likely  to  occur  in  matters  that  pertain  to  the  heart  of  the  Christian 


PLACE,  PURPOSE  AND  SCOPE  51 

movement,  theology  and  social  science  for  example,  than  in  those 
that  lie  on  its  outskirts,  such  as  engineering  and  architecture. 

91.  The  studies  which  the  Commission  has  made  have  con- 
vinced it  that  under  existing  conditions  and  probably  for  some 
time  to  come  the  Christian  forces  must  conduct  all  grades  (not 
necessarily  all  specific  types)  of  education  from  the  lowest  to  the 
highest,  including  the  education  of  adults.  It  is  essential  to  the 
creation  of  a  strong  Christian  community  that  the -development  of 
character  be  a  matter  of  first  concern  from  the  elementary  school 
up  to  the  point  where  education  gives  to  the  church  its  leader  and 
minister.  No  other  agency  than  the  Christian  school  can  at  present 
be  depended  on  to  do  this.  Sunday  schools  may  supplement  the 
educational  work  of  the  public  school,  and  Christian  Associations 
may  bring  religious  influence  to  bear  upon  students  in  non-Christian 
schools  and  colleges  with  excellent  results.  But  they  cannot  under 
existing  conditions  meet  the  whole  situation,  or  make  the  Christian 
school  of  any  grade  unnecessary. 

The  time  may  come  when  a  plan  of  much  closer  coopera- 
ation  than  is  now  possible  may  be  worked  out  under  which  the 
government  will  perhaps  conduct  the  elementary  schools  and  the 
Christian  forces  will  supplement  its  work  by  adequate  religious 
and  moral  training.  There  may  be  regions  where  this  will  soon 
be  possible.  But  the  church  can  never  ignore  the  necessity  for 
the  religious  element  in  education,  and  cannot  now  at  least  dis- 
pense with  Christian  elementary  schools. 

92.  What  may  be  called  the  backbone  of  the  Christian  com- 
munity will  come  mainly  neither  from  the  elementary  schools  nor 
from  the  university,  but  from  the  middle  schools.  Pupils  who  do 
not  reach  this  level  of  education  will  scarcely  be  prepared  to  be  lay 
leaders.  If  they  go  beyond  the  middle  school  they  will  for  the 
present  at  least  largely  join  the  professional  classes.  The  strength 
of  the  church  will  come  from  the  middle  school.  The  leaders  of 
the  church  at  large,  its  educators  and  moulders  of  public  opinion, 
will  come  from  the  higher  institutions,  but  must  of  necessity  pass 
through  the  middle  school.  The  qualified  teachers  of  elementary 
schools  will  also  come  from  schools  of  this  grade.     It  is  evident 


52  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

therefore  that  the  maintenance  of  the  right  kind  and  numher  of 
these  schools  is  the  center  of  the  educational  prohlem.  It  is 
probable  that  no  part  of  the  whole  task  has  received  so  little  atten- 
tion in  proportion  to  its  importance. 

93.  Under  existing  conditions  Christian  schools  must  under- 
take to  provide  occupational  and  professional  education  in  several 
different  lines.  A  normal  Christian  community,  effective  in  its 
influence  on  national  life,  must  include  parents  with  Christian 
ideals  of  home  life,  preachers  able  to  utter  the  Christian  message 
clearly  and  persuasively,  teachers  of  all  grades,  physicians,  journal- 
ists, writers,  orators,  statesmen,  social  workers,  leaders  in  com- 
mercial and  industrial  life.  In  each  of  these  classes,  moreover, 
it  is  necessary  that  efficiency  in  the  specific  occupation  shall  be 
intimately  associated  with  Christian  thinking  and  purpose.  Not  the 
man  whose  business  and  religion  are  carefully  segregated  in  sep- 
arate compartments  of  mind  and  action,  but  one  who  carries  his 
Christian  principles  into  his  business,  and  his  business  efficiency 
into  his  religion,  is  what  the  new  China  needs.  The  achievement 
of  this  result  on  any  large  scale  requires  schools  which  combine 
educational  efficiency  with  the  most  intelligent  consideration  for 
the  development  of  character  and  the  relating  of  religion  to  life. 

94.  A  necessary  complement  to  the  offering  of  occupational 
education  is  the  provision  for  vocational  guidance.  Every  school, 
especially  every  middle  school,  should  provide  the  students  com- 
petent and  sympathetic  advice  as  to  the  occupations  in  which  they 
can  be  of  largest  service,  and  as  to  the  character  and  length  of 
the  course  of  education  which  they  should  pursue.  Education  to 
capacity  should  be  the  basis  of  all  individual  advice.  Every  student 
should  have  the  education  that  will  make  him  a  larger  personality 
and  a  more  useful  member  of  society. 

95.  Even  more  fundamental  than  vocational  guidance  is  the 
maintenance  of  the  sympathetic  attitude  toward  all  the  perplexities 
and  difficulties  of  the  student,  both  intellectual  and  practical.  In  no 
way  can  the  teacher  more  effectually  express  his  Christianity  than 
in  a  sympathetic  dealing  with  the  perplexed  student.  But  a  neces- 
sary complement  of  this  sympathy  on  the  part  of  the  teacher  is  the 


PLACE,  PURPOSE  AND  SCOPE  53 

sense  of  intellectual  freedom  on  his  own  part.  He  whose  own  mind 
is  fettered  can  not  sympathetically  emancipate  another.  Within 
the  limits  of  Christianity  broadly  interpreted  it  is  essential  that  the 
teachers  in  Christian  schools,  both  lower  and  higher,  shall  be  cor- 
dially assured  of  their  right  and  duty  to  investigate,  discover,  and 
think. 

96.  It  must  be  recognized  that  schools  of  agriculture,  for- 
estry, engineering,  and  applied  science,  constitute  a  somewhat 
different  class  from  those  of  theology,  education,  and  literature, 
not  because  they  deal  with  material  things  in  a  way  in  which  those 
of  the  latter  group  do  not,  but  because  Christian  principles  enter 
less  vitally  into  the  educational  process  in  the  one  case  than  in  the 
other.  It  is  therefore  less  necessary  that  schools  of  engineering, 
for  example,  be  conducted  by  the  Christian  forces  than  schools 
of  theology.  It  is  desirable  that  there  be  Christian  men  in  all 
legitimate  occupations,  but  there  is  not  a  Christian  science  of 
metallurgy  in  the  same  sense  in  which  there  may  be  a  Christian 
literature  or  a  Christian  industrialism.  Yet  the  whole  subject  is 
not  one  to  be  dismissed  lightly.  If  it  be  remembered  how  large 
a  part  of  the  population  of  China  is  rural,  how  largely  the  devel- 
opment of  rural  life  will  affect  that  of  the  Christian  community, 
how  significant  results,  moral  as  well  as  economic,  have  already 
been  achieved  in  the  United  States  by  schools  of  the  Hampton 
type,  it  will  be  evident  that  careful  consideration  must  be  given 
to  the  whole  problem  of  the  place  of  education  for  industrial 
occupations  in  a  Christian  system.  Such  consideration  is  given  in 
Part  III.,  Chapters  VII.,  VIII.,  IX,  X. 

97.  The  Christian  forces  cannot  attempt  the  whole  task  of 
education  in  China,  or  even  respond  to  every  demand  which  is 
based  on  a  real  need.  In  practice  they  are  compelled  to  choose 
between  doing  many  things  poorly  and  doing  a  few  things  well. 
It  is  always  difficult  for  a  missionary  educator  who  is  truly  Chris- 
tian in  his  spirit  to  refuse  to  respond  to  the  call  of  human  need, 
especially  to  decline  to  provide  schools  for  Christian  pupils  or 
those  who  may  become  Christian.  Our  study  has,  however,  con- 
vinced us  that  for  the  sake  both  of  the  Chinese  Christian  commu- 


54  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

nity,  which  must  eventually  take  over  the  whole  task  of  Christian 
education,  and  of  China  in  general,  quality  must  be  preferred  to 
quantity.  There  may  have  been  a  time  when  poor  schools  were 
the  best  that  could  be  provided  and  served  a  useful  purpose.  But 
under  present  conditions  one  good  school  is  worth  more  than  many 
poor  ones.  The  aim  should  be  to  make  every  school  a  pattern 
worthy  of  imitation,  both  by  Christians  elsewhere  and  by  the  non- 
Christian  educators.  Schools  that  cannot  maintain  this  superior 
quality  should  be  abandoned,  and  no  new  enterprise  should  be 
launched  that  does  not  have  reasonable  hope  of  maintaining  a  high 
standard. 

98.  The  question  of  how  many  schools  can  be  conducted 
must  be  worked  out  separately  for  each  region  and  for  the  whole 
country  in  respect  to  each  type  and  grade  of  school.  Under  the 
improved  conditions  of  travel  it  is  better,  for  example,  to  have  a 
good  medical  school  in  one  area,  than  poor  ones  with  inadequate 
staff  and  indifferent  equipment  in  two  or  three  areas.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  requirements  of  any  area  are  largely  fixed  by  the  stage 
of  development  at  which  the  Christian  movement  in  that  area  has 
arrived.  What  is  imperatively  needed  in  one  region  may  be  be- 
yond the  needs  of  another.  The  ideal  must  be  quality  and  efficiency 
in  every  area  which  is  entered,  but  efficiency  measured  in  terms 
of  that  area. 

99.  With  a  view  to  accomplishing  the  largest  possible  re- 
sults with  the  resources  available,  general  rules  should  be  worked 
out  showing  the  relative  number  of  pupils  for  whom  provision 
should  be  made  in  the  schools  of  different  grades,  and  in  schools 
for  girls  and  boys  respectively.  As  in  the  work  already  done  in 
this  field  by  the  China  Christian  Educational  Association  the  ratios 
suggested  should  be  based  on  reasonable  expectations  of  the  num- 
ber of  pupils  who  will  pass  from  each  grade  or  school  to  the  higher. 
Account  should  also  be  taken  of  the  conditions  in  respect  to  which 
different  regions  vary.  The  results  should  be  used  as  a  general 
guide  to  the  number  of  schools  to  be  maintained. 

100.  An  Institute  of  Educational  Research.  The  fact  that  for 
several  classes  of  schools  there  has  as  yet  been  developed  no 


PLACE,  PURPOSE  AND  SCOPE  55 

satisfactory  method  of  education  adapted  to  China,  and  especially 
to  the  development  of  a  strong  Christian  community,  makes  it 
necessary  that  in  the  prosecution  of  these  lines  of  educational 
work  there  shall  be  a  considerable  element  of  experimentation  and 
research.  Moreover,  the  whole  system  of  education  requires  to  be 
unified  and  the  results  of  research  coordinated.  In  the  field  of 
elementary  and  secondary  education  there  are  most  important 
questions  concerning  the  objectives  and  methods  of  education 
which  call,  in  the  judgment  of  the  Commission,  for  the  develop- 
ment of  an  Institute  of  Educational  Research  under  Christian  con- 
trol. The  primary  purpose  of  this  institution  will  not  be  the  edu- 
cation-6f  teachers  or  the  training  of  administrators,  but  the  dis- 
covery of  educational  method  in  the  broad  sense  of  the  term.  This 
Institute  would,  for  example,  help  to  solve  such  problems  as  the 
value  of  physical  labor  in  the  development  of  character,  and  the 
extent  to  which  and  the  method  by  which  it  ought  to  be  made  an 
integral  part  of  a  Christian  system  of  elementary  education.  It  will 
call  for  men  and  women  of  the  highest  order  of  ability.  It  will 
take  time  to  develop.  It  should  work  in  close  cooperation  with 
schools  of  all  types  and  in  various  regions.  See  the  fuller  discus- 
sion of  this  matter  in  Sections  251-258. 

VI.    The  Organisation  of  Christian  Education 

lOi.  The  breadth  and  the  character  of  the  task  of  Christian 
education  call  for  the  cooperation  of  all  the  Christian  forces  of  all 
nationalities  and  denominations,  and  the  ultimate  fusion  of  all 
present  and  future  work  into  a  consistent  educational  system  for 
China  as  a  whole.  It  is  almost  axiomatic  that  the  creation  of  a 
strong  and  able  Christian  community  is  one  task  and  should  be 
viewed  and  undertaken  as  such  by  the  Christian  forces  as  a  unit. 
This  does  not  mean  the  merging  of  missionary  societies  at  work 
in  China,  nor  the  control  of  all  the  Boards  by  a  super-board,  nor 
the  abolition  of  denominations  in  China.  It  means  intelligent 
cooperation  for  the  achievement  of  a  task  too  large  for  any  single 
agency. 


56  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

102.  Such  cooperation  calls  for  organization,  and  organiza- 
tion upon  a  well  thought-out  plan.  Much  thought  has  been  given 
to  this  matter  for  A^ears  by  those  who  have  been  engaged  in  educa- 
tional work  in  China,  and  by  those  who  have  had  a  responsibility 
for  the  creation  of  public  opinion  and  the  general  direction  of  the 
work  of  the  Christian  church,  and  much  progress  has  been  made. 
In  expressing  its  own  conviction,  arrived  at  after  many  confer- 
ences and  much  discussion,  that  the  time  is  now  ripe  for  further 
progress  in  the  same  direction,  the  Commission  is  but  endorsing 
the  opinion  of  educators  and  administrators  all  over  China.  The 
task  which  the  Christian  forces  of  China  face  is  one.  It  ought  to 
be  conceived  as  one,  not  only  as  is  now  largely  the  case,  by  the 
leaders  of  thought  and  action,  but  by  all  who  are  engaged  in  any 
part  of  it.  What  is  true  of  the  whole  Christian  enterprise  is  pre- 
eminently true  of  that  large  part  of  it  which  falls  under  the  head 
of  education.  But  if  this  be  true,  it  follows  of  necessity  that  each 
school  should  fill  its  place  in  the  whole  complex  of  educational 
forces  with  the  least  possible  duplication  of  effort  and  that  there 
should  be  the  fewest  possible  gaps.  We  regret  to  say  that  we  have 
found  many  instances  of  men  and  women,  earnest,  devoted,  and 
self-sacrificing,  who  are  losing  a  large  part  of  the  joy  of  their 
work  and  whose  work  itself  is  robbed  of  much  of  its  efficiency, 
by  the  failure  to  apprehend  the  purpose  and  goal  of  the  whole 
task,  and  the  relation  of  their  own  special  work  to  that  task.  The 
time  has  come  when  the  whole  Christian  community,  Chinese  and 
foreign,  should  face  this  task,  and  intelligently  direct  its  united 
energies  to  its  achievement.  This  demands  education  of  the  whole 
community  in  reference  to  the  task  and  organization. 

103.  Foregoing  any  extended  statement  of  reasons  in  the 
conviction  that  these  will  be  self  evident,  the  Commission  desires 
to  commend  to  workers  on  the  field  and  administrators  in  Europe 
and  America,  the  following  series  of  general  propositions  which 
represent  its  own  convictions. 

104.  The  plans  for  the  future  development  of  Christian  edu- 
cational work  should  be  participated  in  by,  and  should  include  the 
educational  work  of : 


PLACE,  PURPOSE  AND  SCOPE  57 

a.  All  the  Protestant  Foreign  Mission  Boards  and  soci- 
eties operating  in  China,  whether  their  home  base  is  Europe, 
America,  or  Australia.  It  is  especially  important  that  there  be  a 
perfect  understanding  and  close  cooperation  between  the  British 
and  American  societies,  since  the  large  part  of  the  work  is  sup- 
ported by  them. 

b.  The  Chinese  church,  and  individual  Chinese  who  are 
either  members  of  the  church  or  in  sympathy  with  its  purpose. 

c.  The  Young  Men's  Christian  Association  and  the 
Young  Women's  Christian  Association,  which,  belonging  originally 
in  the  class  of  foreign  mission  societies,  have  already  become  to 
a  large  extent  organizations  of  Chinese.  From  the  point  of  view 
either  of  their  origin  or  of  their  present  status,  but  especially  be- 
cause of  the  latter,  they  should  be  included  in  the  general  plan 
for  Christian  education. 

105.  Not  only  in  their  general  attitude  and  in  the  ways  men- 
tioned in  Section  ^y,  but  specifically  in  the  organization  of  their 
work,  the  Christian  educational  forces  should  seek  the  utmost 
possible  cooperation  with  government  education.  In  particular, 
in  the  classification  of  their  schools  and  in  the  division  of  the  total 
curriculum,  the  government  plan  should  be  followed  to  the  utmost 
extent  consistent  with  efficiency  and  the  achievement  of  the  specific 
aims  of  the  Christian  school.  Religious  freedom  and  a  measure  at 
least  of  liberty  of  experimentation  must  be  conserved.  But  it 
must  not  be  forgotten  that  conformity  to  the  government  scheme 
in  matters  which  are  not  vital  is  itself  an  asset  and  contributes 
to  effectiveness.  In  conformity  with  this  principle,  the  Commission 
is  basing  its  recommendations  upon  the  system  recently  recom- 
mended by  the  China  Associated  Educational  Associations  as  the 
standard  classification  for  government  education.  This  provides 
for  a  six-year  primary  school,  a  six-year  middle  school  and  a 
four-year  college. 

106.  The  governing  principle  of  the  unified  system  of  Chris- 
tian education  must  be  voluntary  cooperation.  There  is  no  over- 
head power  which  can  legislate  for  all  and  compel  obedience.  Yet, 
acting    voluntarily,    each    missionary    organization    and    Chinese 


58  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

church  body  may  enter  into  cooperative  agreements  by  which  they 
will  thereafter  loyally  abide.  The  union  will  then  be,  not  a  rope 
of  sand,  but  an  eflfective  cooperative  organization. 

107.  For  the  lower  education,  elementary  and  secondary,  the 
territorial  unit  of  cooperation  should  be  the  province  or  a  small 
group  of  provinces.  The  cooperative  organization  may  be  called 
"The  Board  of  Christian  Education."  It  should  be  composed  of 
elected  representatives  of  all  the  missionary  societies  doing  lower 
educational  work  in  its  area  and  of  the  Chinese  Christian  ecclesi- 
astical bodies.  It  should  be  adequately  financed,  have  large  power 
delegated  to  it  by  the  missions  and  ecclesiastical  bodies,  and  should 
have  the  services  of  at  least  two  full-time  executives. 

108.  The  functions  of  the  Board  should  include: 

a.  The  securing  of  minimum  essentials  in  school  build- 
ings and  equipment,  in  curriculum,  in  qualifications  of  teachers,  in 
methods  and  results  of  teaching; 

b.  The  regular  supervision  of  schools,  and  provision  for 
the  training  in  service  of  the  teachers ; 

c.  Continuous  study  of  the  problems  of  the  schools  and 
means  for  getting  the  results  to  the  teacher ; 

d.  Some  adequate  method  of  testing  the  results  of 
teaching. 

109.  Within  the  province  and  for  the  purposes  of  super- 
vision there  should  be  districts.  These  districts  may  be  organ- 
ized on  territorial  or  ecclesiastical  lines,  but  preferably  on  terri- 
torial lines  when  these  are  practicable. 

no.  The  existing  Provincial  Educational  Associations  should 
take  the  lead  in  bringing  about  the  creation  of  the  above-named 
Christian  Boards  of  Education.  Being  voluntary  organizations  of 
persons,  they  cannot  themselves  discharge  the  functions  of  a  body 
officially  representing  missionary  and  ecclesiastical  bodies.  The 
Educational  Associations  should  continue  to  hold  their  annual 
meetings,  preferably  at  the  same  time  as  those  of  the  Provincial 
Boards  of  Education,  for  purposes  of  conference  and  discussion 
of  local  educational  problems. 

III.    For  the  coordination  of  the  higher  educational  work 


PLACE,  PURPOSE  AND  SCOPE  59 

there  should  be  six  higher  educational  areas,  North  China,  East 
China,  Central  China,  South  China,  West  China,  and  Fukien.  In 
each  area  in  which  there  is  a  group  of  colleges  there  should  be  a 
Higher  Educational  Council  or  Senate,  through  which  the  work 
of  all  the  colleges  and  universities  should  be  coordinated.  This 
matter  is  discussed  more  fully  in  Sections  210-224. 

112.  To  insure  cooperation  between  all  the  areas,  and  to  mould 
the  whole  body  of  schools  and  educational  agencies  into  a  smoothly 
working  cooperative  system,  the  work  of  the  China  Christian  Edu- 
cational Association  should  be  organized  in  four  departments : 
the  Department  of  Higher  Education,  the  Department  of  Elemen- 
tary and  Secondary  Education,  the  Department  of  Religious  Edu- 
cation, and  the  Department  of  Extension  and  Adult  Education, 
each  with  its  own  council  and  secretary.  The  council  of  the  Depart- 
ment of  Higher  Education  should  be  composed  of  representatives 
of  the  Christian  colleges,  and  the  Council  of  the  Department  of 
Elementary  and  Secondary  Education  of  representatives  of  the 
Provincial  Boards  of  Education.  The  four  councils  should  unit- 
edly form  the  National  Board  of  Christian  Education. 

113.  The  specific  duties  of  the  National  Board  should  include : 

a.  Publication  and  promulgation  of  the  plan  above  out- 
lined. 

b.  Efforts  to  induce  the  Provincial  Associations  to  take 
steps  looking  to  the  creation  of  the  Provincial  Boards  of  Education ; 
the  higher  educational  institutions  to  organize  federated  univer- 
sities in  their  several  areas;  and  the  organization  of  the  inter- 
provincial  associations. 

c.  The  holding  of  conventions  and  conferences  for  the 
promotion  of  these  plans  and  of  Christian  education  in  general. 

d.  The  dissemination  of  literature  looking  to  the  improve- 
ment of  Christian  education. 

e.  The  correlation  of  the  activities  of  the  Provincial 
Boards  of  Education,  especially  with  respect  to  minimum  essen- 
tials, teacher  training,  supervision  of  schools,  provision  of  text- 
books, and  the  testing  of  the  results  of  teaching. 

114.  With  a  view  to  securing  greater  symmetry  and  effective- 


6o  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

ness  in  the  system  of  Christian  education,  and  specifically  to 
strengthening  what  might  otherwise  be  the  weak  spots  of  the 
system,  it  is  recommended  that  an  increasing  proportion  of  the 
funds  available  for  Christian  education  be  under  the  immediate 
control  of  the  Boards  of  Managers  of  educational  institutions,  or 
Provincial  Boards  of  Education,  and  the  China  Christian  Educa- 
tional Association,  and  that  these  funds  be  available : 

a.  For  appropriation  to  schools  which  require  strength- 
ening in  order  to  fill  their  places  in  the  system ; 

b.  For  the  promotion  and  improvement  of  education 
through  publication,  and  the  holding  of  conventions  and  con- 
ferences. 

The  method  by  which  a  denominational  Board  pays  the 
salaries  of  men  and  women  designated  by  such  Board  for  service  in 
a  given  school,  or  for  educational  work  in  a  specific  position,  has 
its  advantages,  and  it  may  be  expedient  to  continue  it  as  one 
method  for  the  present.  Its  exclusive  or  too  general  use  inevitably 
hampers  the  development  of  the  schools,  and  the  other  method  of 
direct  appropriation  to  a  fund  administered  on  the  field  should  be 
much  more  largely  employed  than  at  present. 

VII.    The  Heart  of  the  Problem 

115.  The  study  of  education  in  any  country  inevitably  in- 
volves many  matters  of  detail,  and  the  prosecution  of  it  much 
organization  and  machinery.  To  this  fact  Christian  education  in 
China  is  no  exception.  But  no  attention  to  details  of  organiza- 
tion ought  to  obscure  the  significant  fact  that  China,  a  great  nation 
of  four  hundred  million  people,  is  passing  through  an  exception- 
ally interesting  and  significant  period  of  its  history.  There  is  a 
great  mass  of  men,  women,  and  children  to  whom  national  and 
international  politics  are  of  little  moment  compared  with  the  affairs 
of  their  own  farm,  or  house,  or  village.  But  in  all  the  centers  there 
is  a  surging,  seething  life.  The  new  government,  the  new  educa- 
tion, the  new  thought,  the  new  industry,  claim  the  attention  and 
enlist  their  thinking. 


PLACE,  PURPOSE  AND  SCOPE  .  6i 

Ii6.  Into  the  midst  of  this  new  life  the  Christian  preacher 
and  the  Christian  teacher,  believing  that  they  possess  in  their  mes- 
sage the  answer  to  China's  problems  and  the  solvent  of  her  per- 
■  plexities,  are  endeavoring  to  make  this  message  a  vital  force  in 
the  life  of  the  people.  Compared  with  the  millions  of  people  they 
are  a  handful.  Compared  with  the  government,  weak  though  it  is, 
their  resources  are  meagre.  Compared  with  the  schools  of  the 
government,  their  numbers  are  few  and  their  student  body  small. 
How  shall  they  make  their  influence  most  effective?  How  shall 
they  turn  the  stream  of  China's  life  into  the  channels  of  power  and 
of  safety? 

117.  The  study  which  the  Commission  has  made,  in  the  case 
of  some  of  the  members  extending  over  years,  in  the  case  of  others 
a  few  months,  has  brought  them  to  the  conviction  that  Christian 
principles  may  yet  become  the  controlling  force  in  China's  life. 
But  whether  this  will  be  the  case  will  depend  in  no  small  measure 
upon  the  wisdom  and  intelligence  with  which  Christian  education 
is  carried  on  in  the  next  few  years,  and  the  generosity  with  which 
it  is  supported  by  gifts  from  Christian  lands.  EvangeUsm  is  su- 
premely important.  But  evangelism  itself  will  fail,  if  there  are 
not  schools  in  which  to  produce  evangelists  who,  knowing  the 
Christian  message,  can  speak  to  their  own  people,  Chinese  to 
Chinese.  If  Christian  education  fails  the  growing  stream  of  non- 
Christian  education  and  of  anti-Christian  influence  will  submerge 
the  Christian  movement,  or  reduce  it  to  a  place  of  minor  impor- 
tance. The  future  of  Christian  education  is  not  yet  assured. 
To  say  that  it  trembles  in  the  balance  is  to  use  too  strong  language. 
There  are  many  schools,  well  established,  well  equipped,  well 
staffed,  that  can  not  easily  be  destroyed.  But  it  is  not  yet  settled 
whether  Christian  education  is  to  be  the  determining  force  or  a 
relatively  insignificant  and  diminishing  factor  in  Chinese  life. 
On  the  answer  to  this  question  will  largely  hang  the  decision 
whether  China  will  become  a  Christian  nation,  perhaps  the  strong- 
hold of  Christianity  in  future  centuries.  If  the  present  hour  of 
opportunity  is  vigorously  and  wisely  seized,  if  forgetting  unim- 
portant differences  we  unite  all  our  efforts  to  build  up  a  system 


62  CHRISTIAN.  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

of  education,  sound,  vigorous,  progressive,  and,  fundamentally 
Christian,  which  shall  in  turn  create  a  strong  Christian  community 
expressing  in  its  life  the  spirit  and  principles  of  Christianity,  we 
may  look  with  hope  to  the  time  when  the  religion  of  Jesus  will  be 
the  religion  of  China.  But  this  demands  that  we  give  diligent 
effort  both  to  unite  all  our  forces  in  China  in  the  development  of 
an  effective,  coordinated  system  of  education,  and  to  secure  in 
Europe  and  America  the  personal  and  financial  resources  that  will 
sustain  such  a  system  until  the  Chinese  church  shall  take  over  both 
its  management  and  its  support. 

ii8.  The  challenge  of  the  situation  in  China  to-day  is  a 
clarion  call  to  all  who  believe  that  the  people  of  the  West  and  the 
people  of  the  East  should  work  together  for  the  common  good 
of  all.  We  appeal  to  the  citizens  of  the  British  Empire  and  the 
United  States  especially,  to  interest  themselves  in  the  problem  which 
the  Commission  has  been  facing,  that  they  may  realize  that  the  issue 
is  not  one  for  teachers  or  professional  educators  alone,  but  should 
enlist  the  intelligent  sympathy  and  practical  support  of  every 
lover  of  humankind. 


PART  III 

SPECIFIC  TYPES  AND  GRADES  OF 
EDUCATION 

CHAPTER  I 
ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION 

I.    The  Elemetitary  School  and  the  Christian  Community      f 

119.  Christian  elementary  schools  were  first  established  for 
the  purpose  of  making  an  opening  for  the  preaching  of  the  gospel. 
The  breaking  down  of  prejudice,  the  winning  of  the  confidence  of 
the  parents,  the  provision  of  a  recognised  Christian  center  in  town 
or  city,  and  the  conversion  of  individuals — these  were  the  objec- 
tives. But,  as  the  Christian  community  has  developed,  the  elemen- 
tary school  has  assumed  a  new  function,  that  of  providing  for  the 
children  of  that  community  a  sound  education  in  a  Christian  atmo- 
sphere, and  so  laying  the  foundations  of  Christian  character  in  the 
impressionable  years  of  childhood.  In  this  way  the  schools  bear 
a  large  part  in  the  upbuilding  of  an  intelligent  Christian  society, 
able  to  accomplish  its  great  and  difficult  task.  This,  it  is  generally 
agreed,  is  now  the  main  purpose  of  Christian  elementary  education, 
though  it  should  still  open  its  doors  to  other  than  Christian  chil- 
dren, and  thus  enlarge  the  sphere  of  Christian  influence.  Further, 
since  Christian  education  as  a  whole  includes  as  one  of  its  im- 
portant aims  the  selection  and  training  of  the  future  leaders  of  the 
Christian  community,  such  training  should  be  given  in  the  ele- 
mentary schools  as  will  develop  those  elements  of  character  that 
are  essential  to  true  leadership,  and  those  who  give  signs  of  poten- 

63 


64  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

tial  leadership  sliould  be  encouraged  to  enter  the  middle  school.^ 

120.  So  conceived,  the  function  of  the  elementary  school  is 
one  without  which  the  Christian  community  of  the  next  generation 
will  be  immeasurably  weaker,  and  with  which  it  cannot  afford  to 
dispense.  The  Commission  believes  that  for  the  present  at  least, 
and  probably  for  some  time  to  come,  Christian  elementary  schools 
should  continue  to  be  maintained  as  essential  factors  in  the  life 
and  work  of  the  church.  This  implies,  however,  that  they  must 
actually  do  that  for  which  they  have  been  established.  Unfortu- 
nately, the  Commission  has  found  many  schools  that  do  not  justify 
their  existence.  Either  the  education  they  offer  is  so  poor  that 
it  fails  to  give  to  Christian  children  an  adequate  training,  and  so 
discredits  the  whole  Christian  movement,  or  the  Christian  power 
of  the  school  is  too  weak  to  make  any  impression  on  its  students 
or  on  the  community.  Such  schools  should  be  improved  or  dis- 
continued. 

121.  Because  of  the  intimate  connection  that  exists  between 
the  Christian  schools  and  the  life  of  the  Christian  community,  it  is 
increasingly  necessary  that  the  schools  should  reflect  the  spirit  and 
the  ideals  of  that  community  which  should  assume  their  direc- 
tion and  support.  Exclusive  control  of  elementary  schools  by 
missionaries  has  already,  for  the  most  part,  been  replaced  by  joint 
control  with  the  Chinese  church;  as  rapidly  as  the  church  in  any 
part  of  the  country  can  assume  the  responsibility,  the  direction  of 
elementary  education  should  pass  into  its  hands.  There  will  be 
need  of  wisdom  in  making  this  transfer  in  such  a  way  that  it  will 
increase  the  educational  and  Christian  efficiency  of  the  schools. 

II.    Christian  Elementary  Schools  and  the  Chinese  System 
of  Public  Education 

122.  In  a  former  chapter  it  was  shown  that  there  is  a  perma- 
nent place  in  China  for  Christian  education  as  a  whole.   Does  this 

1  In  accord  with  the  principle  adopted  throughout  the  report,  the  six-year  elementary 
course  proposed  by  the  China  Associated  Educational  Associations  is  assumed  in  this  sec- 
tion. It  includes  the  present  lower  primary  course,  and  two  years  of  the  higher  primary. 
The  higher  primary  third  year  becomes  the  first  year  of  the  junior  middle  school. 


ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION  65 

apply  to  the  elementary  school  ?    The  question  is  one  of  first  im- 
portance, and  it  requires  careful  consideration. 

It  is  generally  agreed  that  upon  the  government  of  a 
country  rests  the  responsibility  of  seeing  that  adequate  provision 
is  made  for  the  education  of  all  children,  and  for  securing  their 
attendance  at  school.  Such  provision  may  be  made  either  through 
the  public  operation  of  all  elementary  schools,  by  public  control 
of  the  standards  of  schools  privately  maintained,  or  by  various 
combinations  of  the  two  methods. 

123.  Within  recent  years  Chinese  educators  have  accepted 
this  responsibility  and  have  set  themselves  to  provide  universal 
facilities  of  modern  education.  The  task  before  them  is  one  of 
vast  proportions.  There  are  in  China  seventy  million  children  of 
elementary  school  age.  According  to  the  statistics  of  the  year 
1916,  only  4,086,962  of  these  children  were  actually  attending 
schools  that  are  recognized  by  the  public  authorities.  This  is  one 
per  cent  of  the  total  population  of  the  country.  Even  including 
such  of  the  private  schools  of  the  old  classical  style  as  might  be 
expected  in  time  to  reach  the  standards  of  modern  education, 
provision  is  now  being  made  for  the  education  of  less  than  two 
per  cent  of  the  population  of  China,  which  is  not  more  than  one- 
tenth  of  those  who  should  be  in  the  elementary  schools. 

124.  To  establish,  staff  and  maintain  ten  times  the  present 
number  of  schools  is  a  tremendous  undertEtking ;  but  there  can  be 
no  doubt  that  it  will  be  successful  eventually.  The  Christian  forces 
are  aiding  in  its  accomplishment  through  the  maintenance  of  ele- 
mentary schools.  The  fact  that  the  Christian  schools  will  be  rela- 
tively few  in  number,  at  present  only  4.9  per  cent  of  the  total, 
makes  it  all  the  more  necessary  that  they  be  good  in  order  to  make 
a  contribution  of  any  value. 

Further,  the  progress  of  education  in  China  is  being  aided 
by  the  belief  of  the  members  of  the  Christian  community  in  the 
value  of  modern  schools.  While  only  two  per  cent  at  most  of  the 
total  population  of  China  are  in  the  elementary  schools,  it  is  esti- 
mated that  ten  per  cent  of  the  Christian  community  are  in  the 
Christian  schools. 


66  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

Lastly,  a  system  of  public  education  tends  to  become  rigid 
and  to  discourage  variation  and  experiment.  There  is  an  educational 
justification  for  the  existence  of  a  relatively  small  group  of  schools 
that  is  free  to  conduct  experiments,  to  develop  along  somewhat 
different  lines,  and  to  emphasize  aspects  of  education  which  re- 
ceive too  small  attention  or  are  entirely  neglected  in  the  public 
system.  Especially  is  there  need  in  China  to-day  for  schools 
that  express  the  principle  that  the  religious  needs  of  the  child 
are  to  be  provided  for  in  a  comprehensive  educational  pro- 
gram. 

For  these  reasons,  the  Commission  believes  that  the 
Chinese  educational  authorities  will  recognise  the  value  of  Chris- 
tian elementary  schools,  provided  always  that  they  actually  give 
an  education  of  a  high  standard. 

125.  The  following  principles  should  guide  in  the  relations 
of  the  Christian  schools  to  the  public  system  of  elementary  edu- 
cation : 

a.  Full  recognition  should  be  given  of  the  duty  of  the 
government  to  make  provision  for  the  adequate  education  of  all 
the  children  of  China,  and  of  the  fact  that  all  private  schools 
must  in  some  way  be  brought  within  the  scope  of  the  national 
school  system. 

b.  Christian  schools  should  loyally  meet  all  legitimate 
standards  of  the  public  system,  particularly  those  concerned  with 
buildings  and  equipment,  the  qualifications  of  the  teaching  staff, 
the  supervision  of  instruction,  and  the  composition  of  controlling 
bodies. 

c.  As  far  as  is  consistent  with  their  function  as  recog- 
nized variants  from  type.  Christian  schools  should  follow  the 
government  classification  of  schools,  content  of  curricula,  and 
disciplinary  regulations. 

d.  Government  inspection  of  schools  should  be  wel- 
comed, and  official  recognition  of  schools  be  sought,  provided  al- 
ways that  this  does  not  involve  the  sacrifice  of  that  which  is  the 
very  essence  of  the  contribution  of  the  Christian  schools,  that  is, 
the  maintenance  of  the  Christian  spirit  and  ideals. 


ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION  67 

e.  One  benefit  arising  from  a  close  relation  to  the  gov- 
ernment system  is  the  removal  of  the  suspicion  that  Christian 
schools  tend  to  "foreignize"  children.  In  order  that  they  may 
actually  be  Chinese  in  spirit  and  method,  the  direction  of  the 
schools  should,  as  far  as  possible,  be  undertaken  by  the  Christian 
community  rather  than  by  missionary  organisations. 

f.  It  should  be  recognized  that  Christian  schools  cannot 
be  maintained  in  every  community.  The  number  must  be  limited 
by  the  extent  to  which  schools  can  be  effectively  conducted.  It  is 
also  possible  that  in  some  places,  where  the  publicly-conducted 
schools  afford  a  good  education  and  adequate  provision  can  be 
made  in  other  ways  for  realising  the  religious  purpose  of  the 
Christian  school,  it  may  be  in  the  best  interests  of  the  Christian 
movement  as  a  whole  not  to  maintain  a  separate  elementary  school. 
This  would  be  the  case  particularly  where  the  existence  of  a 
Christian  school  is  likely  to  be  regarded  as  unnecessary  competition 
with  the  publicly-supported  school,  and  friendly  relations  between 
the  church  and  the  general  community  are  thus  imperilled. 

g.  Instances  have  been  known  where  Christian  schools 
have  been  allowed  the  free  use  of  temples  or  other  public  build- 
ings, or  have  received  annual  grants  from  public  educational  funds. 
It  is  doubtful,  however,  if  a  widespread  development  of  financial 
help  should  be  expected  and,  in  view  of  the  present  uncertainty  of 
government  policy,  it  appears  to  be  wise  not  to  depend  upon  public 
grants  for  the  maintenance  of  Christian  schools. 

III.    The  Number  and  Distribution  of  Christian 
Elementary  Schools 

126.  Christian  elementary  schools  follow  the  present  govern- 
ment classification  into  lower  primary  (four  years)  and  higher 
primary  (three  years).  Of  the  former,  there  are  5,607  schools 
with  150,779  students,  and  of  the  latter,  956  schools  and  32,829 
students.  This  total  of  less  than  200,000  students  in  Christian  ele- 
mentary schools  is  4.3  per  cent  of  the  elementary  school  enrollment 
in  China.  The  proportion  of  Christian  students  to  the  whole  varies 


68  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

greatly  in  different  provinces  from  32  per  cent  in  Fukien  to  i.i  per 
cent  in  Yunnan. 

127.  Christian  schools  do  not  reach  all  the  children  of  school 
age,  even  in  the  Christian  community.  Taking  the  total  of  the 
Christian  community  as  1,000,000,  it  contains  at  least  200,000 
children  of  school  age.  The  total  enrollment  in  Christian  elemen- 
tary schools  is  less  than  this  number,  and  it  is  probable  that  more 
than  half  of  those  in  the  schools  are  from  outside  the  Christian 
community.  One  mission  reports  that  of  3,014  students  in  lower 
primary  schools,  only  640  (or  21  per  cent)  are  from  Christian 
homes,  and  of  511  higher  primary  students  but  157  (or  31  per 
cent).  Some  Christian  children  are  attending  other  schools,  but  it 
is  a  conservative  estimate  that  from  one-half  to  two-thirds  of  the 
coming  generation  of  Christians  is  growing  up  in  what  is  practical 
illiteracy.  Further,  the  large  majority  of  children  in  the  lower 
primary  schools  are  in  the  first  two  years,  and  most  of  these 
leave  school  by  the  end  of  the  second  year,  before  they  can  become 
permanently  literate.  Actual  figures  concerning  elimination  have 
not  been  secured,  but  the  condition  is  serious.  The  Commission 
urges  that  careful  studies  be  made  to  ascertain  how  much  of  the 
effort  in  the  elementary  schools  is  being  largely  thrown  away 
because  of  failure  of  parents  to  continue  children  in  school. 

There  should  be  definite  plans  adopted  to  meet  this 
condition.  The  church  as  a  whole  should  inaugurate  a  campaign  to 
secure  the  regular  school  attendance  of  all  Christian  children,  at 
Christian  schools  where  they  exist,  until  the  completion  of  the  ele- 
mentary course.  Such  an  anticipation  of  the  introduction  of  com- 
pulsory education  by  the  government  would  be  of  inestimable 
benefit  to  the  Christian  community  and  would  encourage  the  public 
educational  authorities. 

128.  The  number  of  boys  in  attendance  at  school  is  consid- 
erably larger  than  that  of  girls.  According  to  the  Survey  volume 
the  proportion  of  boys  to  girls  in  all  Christian  lower  primary 
schools  is  68  to  32,  and  in  higher  primary  71  to  29.  In  the  public 
and  Christian  schools  combined  the  proportions  are  q6  to  4  in  the 
lower  primary  and  95  to  5  in  the  higher  primary.    This  startling 


ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION  69 

discrepancy  in  the  amount  of  provision  made  for  the  education  of 
girls  indicates  the  greatest  lack  in  Chinese  public  education,  and 
the  place  where  help  from  the  Christian  movement  is  most  needed. 
Especially  in  the  country  districts  the  Christian  church  has  a  free 
field  in  the  education  of  girls. 

129.  Increased  provision  for  the  education  of  girls  can  be 
made  either  in  separate  schools,  or  by  coeducation.  The  latter 
method  is  in  use  in  many  parts  of  the  country.  There  is  much 
to  be  said  for  it  in  the  lower  grades.  It  avoids  the  necessity  for 
duplication  of  schools ;  it  makes  possible  the  employment  of  women 
teachers  for  young  children  of  both  sexes;  and,  by  the  combina- 
tion of  two  existing  schools,  it  secures  a  larger  stafif  and  better 
grading  of  students.  In  the  higher  grades,  the  experiment  should 
be  made  with  caution.  In  any  case,  coeducation  should  be  limited 
to  day  schools. 

130.  It  has  been  the  expressed  aim  of  many  missions,  realized 
to  a  large  degree  in  some  parts  of  the  country,  that  there  should 
be  a  Christian  lower  primary  day  school  in  connection  with  every 
organised  congregation,  and  a  higher  primary  boarding  school  in 
every  large  Christian  center.  While  sympathising  with  the  desire 
to  extend  Christian  education  in  this  way  to  all  Christian  commu- 
nities, the  Commission  is  of  the  opinion  that  the  present  combined 
strength  of  the  Chinese  church  and  the  missionary  organisations 
is  insufficient  to  maintain  in  a  satisfactory  manner  so  large  a  num- 
ber of  schools.  It,  therefore,  recommends  the  following  policy  in 
regard  to  the  distribution  of  elementary  schools : 

a.  Only  so  many  schools  should  be  maintained  as  can 
be  brought  to  reasonable  educational  standards  and  can  be  made 
effective  in  their  Christian  influence  upon  the  students  and  the 
community.  Where  this  involves,  as  it  undoubtedly  will,  the  aban- 
donment of  many  existing  schools,  this  should  be  looked  upon  not 
as  a  weakening  of  the  influence  of  Christian  education,  but  as  a 
strengthening  of  it  through  concentration  of  effort. 

b.  Schools  should  be  wisely  distributed,  with  consider- 
ation both  of  their  immediate  influence  upon  the  local  community 
and  also  of  their  largest  contribution  to  the  church  as  a  whole. 


70  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

Isolated  schools  may  be  necessary  in  districts  newly  entered  by 
the  Christian  church,  but,  in  general,  schools  should  be  so  located 
as  to  permit  of  easy  connection  with  a  larger  educational  organi- 
sation. 

c.  Elementary  day  schools  should  be  so  grouped  about 
middle  schools,  with  regard  both  to  location  and  administration, 
as  to  insure  the  steady  progress  of  large  numbers  of  students  from 
the  lower  to  the  higher  schools.  A  small  but  closely  coordinated 
group  of  elementary  schools,  sending  a  large  proportion  of  stu- 
dents to  the  middle  school,  is  more  effective  in  every  way  than  a 
much  greater  number  of  widely  scattered  schools. 

IV.    Types  of  School 

131.  The  Commission  was  glad  to  find  in  the  elementary 
schools  a  general  approximation  to  government  standards.  While 
there  still  exists  throughout  the  country  a  large  number  of  the  so- 
called  old-style  classical  schools,  the  number  of  these  under  Chris- 
tian auspices  is  small.  Unfortunately,  many  others  have  the  name 
without  the  reality  of  modern  schools.  These  should  either  be 
made  what  they  claim  to  be,  or  be  given  up.  In  the  villages,  the 
schools  have  usually  only  one  teacher,  and  are  often  very  ineffi- 
cient. There  is,  however,  an  increasing  number  of  excellent 
"model  schools,"  with  simple  buildings  that  conform  to  the  stan- 
dard requirements,  with  trained  and  supervised  teachers,  and 
teaching  that  is  equal  to  the  best  in  similar  conditions  in  other 
lands.  In  the  cities  there  are  still  too  many  small  schools  housed 
in  dirty,  ill-ventilated  shops  or  rooms  connected  with  church 
property. 

132.  At  the  opposite  extreme  are  the  city  schools,  both  day 
and  boarding,  under  either  church  or  mission  control,  with  well- 
graded  classes,  trained  teachers,  attractive  classrooms  and  large 
attendance.  The  advantages  of  concentration,  judged  by  the  cri- 
terion of  Christian  influence,  are  most  manifest  in  such  situations. 
One  such  school  is  worth  more  to  the  Christian  movement  than 
a  score  of  poorly  conducted  ones. 


ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION  71 

133.  The  number  of  kindergartens  that  the  Commission  found 
was  disappointingly  small.  The  Chinese  need  those  aspects  of  edu- 
cation upon  which  the  kindergarten  has  laid  emphasis.  In  elemen- 
tary schools  of  the  older  type  little  is  asked  of  the  child  in  the 
educational  process  but  receptivity.  In  the  kindergarten  the  child 
must  make  his  contribution  of  self-active  effort  before  the  teacher 
can  furnish  the  interpretation  and  guidance  which  constitute  her 
contribution.  Educational  method  is  thus  a  process  of  interaction 
between  the  child  and  the  teacher,  in  which  the  child  furnishes  the 
impulses  and  the  interests,  and  the  teacher  their  organisation  to- 
ward the  ends  of  education.  Through  manual  and  other  activities, 
by  means  of  drawing  and  music,  by  the  quickening  of  the  senses, 
the  teacher  seeks  to  secure  from  the  child  original  expression,  so 
that  he  may  be  said  to  make  the  larger  contribution  to  his  own 
education. 

A  child,  whose  first  approach  to  the  process  of  education 
is  through  the  kindergarten,  is  found  to  be  much  more  alert  and 
quick  to  learn,  and  his  progress  in  the  elementary  school  is  more 
rapid  that  that  of  the  student  who  commences  with  the  more  formal 
-methods.  There  is  need  for  many  more  kindergartens.  There  is 
also  need  for  the  use  of  the  methods  of  the  kindergarten  in  the 
first  two  years  of  the  elementary  course.  Kindergarten  training 
should  be  given  not  only  to  prospective  kindergarten  teachers,  but 
also  to  those  who  are  to  teach  the  lower  classes  in  the  primary 
grades. 

134.  Undoubtedly  one  cause  of  ineffective  schools  has  been 
the  confusion  of  aims  in  schools  of  different  types.  Without  at- 
tempting a  full  treatment  of  the  subject  the  Commission  makes 
the  following  suggestions  of  types  of  school  that  should  be  main- 
tained : 

a.  Kindergarten. — Where  the  number  of  young  children 
warrants  it  and  resources  are  available,  kindergarten  classes  should 
be  estabhshed  in  elementary  schools  or,  if  that  is  not  possible,  in 
separate  institutions.  Further,  the  teacher  of  the  first  two  years 
of  the  elementary  school  should  be  trained  in  kindergarten  methods 
or  in  the  project  method.    The  ideal  plan  would  be  a  combined 


^2  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

course  with  no  break  at  the  beginning  of  the  first  year  of  the 
elementary  school, 

b.  Village  school. — The  Christian  church  should  main- 
tain as  many  village  schools  of  distinctive  character  as  possible. 
Probably  one  half  of  the  population  of  China  lives  in  small  com- 
muriities  of  from  one  to  three  hundred  persons  each.  In  these 
farm  villages  a  type  of  school  is  required  that  is  radically  different 
from  that  in  the  large  town  or  city.  The  life  of  the  people  is  essen- 
tially homogeneous,  and  the  church  should  meet  its  needs  as  a 
whole.  A  combined  "church-and-school,"  conducted  as  a  religious, 
educational  and  social  center  for  children  and  adults  alike,  would 
be  a  mighty  force  to  uplift  the  community.  One  man,  as  "teacher- 
preacher,"  definitely  trained  to  meet  the  problems  of  the  village, 
might  better  meet  the  situation  than  two  men. 

This  school  should  attempt  no  ambitious  class-room  pro- 
gram. Emphasis  should  be  put  on  reading,  writing  and  ele- 
mentary mathematics,  and  on  simple  training  in  hygiene,  good 
citizenship,  home-making  and  market-gardening,  all  directly  applied 
to  conditions  in  the  village.  For  adults  there  should  be  evening 
classes,  an  enlarged  Sunday  school  with  the  widest  possible  edu- 
cational features,  among  which  the  teaching  to  read  by  means  of 
phonetic  script  or  character  would  be  prominent,  and  winter  week- 
day classes  in  regions  where  farm  work  is  largely  suspended  for 
some  months.  During  the  busy  seasons  of  planting  and  harvesting 
the  school  should  be  closed  to  enable  the  children  to  help  in  the 
fields.  At  this  time  the  teacher  should  identify  himself  with  the 
people  by  joining  in  the  field  work;  or  attend  an  institute  planned 
for  rural  teachers. 

The  village  school  would  normally  cover  the  work  of  the 
first  four  years  only  and  have  but  one  teacher.  Where  the  teacher's 
wife  could  take  classes,  or  an  assistant  be  employed,  the  full  six- 
years'  course  would  be  given.  The  teacher  should  be  trained  in  the 
use  of  the  ungraded  school  methods.  The  school  should  be  sup- 
ported in  the  first  place  by  a  central  fund,  but  as  soon  as  possible 
its  support  should  be  undertaken  by  the  local  community,  with  such 
grants-in-aid  from  the  central  fund  as  are  necessary.     In  some 


ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION  n 

cases  the  establishment  and  support  of  one  or  two  model  schools 
of  this  nature  by  the  mission,  or  by  the  whole  church  of  a  district, 
would  be  sufficient  stimulus  to  lead  to  the  voluntary  undertaking 
of  the  support  of  others. 

.  c.  Central  hoarding  school. — Those  responsible  for  the 
establishment  of  schools  have  rightly  stressed  the  importance  of 
having  children  over  twelve  years  of  age  live  in  a  boarding  school, 
where  they  are  under  continuous  Christian  influence.  The  village 
day  schools  should  be  grouped  about  central  boarding  schools, 
which  would  take  students  at  the  beginning  of  the  fifth  year  and 
continue  them  up  into  the  junior  middle  school  for  one,  two  or 
three  years.  Such  a  school  should  be  located  on  the  outskirts  of 
a  town  with  which  the  villages  are  naturally  connected.  The  build- 
ing, while  conforming  to  established  standards,  should  be  inexpen- 
sive, and  its  equipment  as  simple  as  possible.  There  should  be 
three  or  four  teachers  for  a  school  of  sixty  or  so.  Emphasis 
should  be  laid  upon  those  subjects  that  prepare  the  child  to  meet 
the  problems  of  the  rural  community ;  especially  should  more  ad- 
vanced work  in  agriculture  be  given  by  a  well-trained  teacher. 
Such  a  school,  if  under  Chinese  direction,  would  provide  unrivalled 
opportunities  for  the  development  of  Chinese  initiative  in  Christian 
education. 

d.  Town  and  city  school. — In  larger  towns  and  in  cities 
elementary  schools  are  tending  to  become  day  schools.  They  should 
be  well-staffed,  with  one  teacher  for  each  class.  There  seems  to  be 
no  adequate  reason  for  the  maintenance  of  one-teacher  schools  in 
the  cities ;  in  these  communities  comparison  will  be  made  with  the 
best  schools  conducted  by  the  public  authorities.  A  combination 
of  two  or  more  small  schools,  even  though  under  different  denomi- 
nations, would  greatly  aid  the  whole  Christian  movement  in  the 
place.  A  richer  curriculum  should  be  provided  than  that  of  the 
village  schools,  with  local  variations  to  meet  specific  needs  of  the 
children  for  occupational  training. 

The  present  large  and  rather  expensive  city  higher 
primary  boarding  schools  should  either  develop  into  full  junior 
middle  schools  or  become  six-year  primary  day  schools.    This  is  in 


74  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

line  with  probable  developments  detailed  in  the  following  section. 
In  any  boarding  school  adequate  provision  must  be  made 
for  the  housing  and  oversight  of  the  students.  One  more  teacher 
should  be  employed  than  in  a  day  school  in  order  to  take  full  ad- 
vantage of  the  opportunity  to  influence  the  students  personally  in 
games,  study  hours,  and  through  the  social  and  religious  activities 
of  the  school. 

135.  School  buildings. — Too  often  there  appears  to  be  a 
feeling  that  there  is  no  middle  ground  between  school  buildings 
that  are  absolutely  to  be  condemned  and  expensive  foreign-style 
structures.  In  the  elementary  grades  the  foreignized  building  is, 
as  a  rule,  out  of  place  and  sometimes  harmful  to  the  influence  of 
the  school.  Materials  and  structure  should  be  adapted  to  the  re- 
sources and  conditions  of  the  locality,  and  a  result  should  be  sought 
which  is  homelike  and  attractive.  This  means  that  the  standards 
for  buildings  and  their  equipment  should  be  worked  out  largely 
by  Chinese,  who  are  thoroughly  familiar  with  the  conditions  in 
which  the  school  is  to  be  located.  When  these  standards  have  been 
adopted  no  better  use  could  be  made  of  mission  funds  than  the 
erection  in  central  locations  of  a  few  models,  which  could  be 
copied  in  other  places.  The  Commission  recommends  the  erection 
of  a  residence  for  the  teacher  in  connection  with  the  school. 


V.    The  Training 

136.  Objective. — It  has  already  been  said  that  the  aim  of 
the  elementary  school  is  the  production  of  intelligent  Christian 
personalities,  for  the  good  not  only  of  the  individuals  themselves 
but  also  of  the  Christian  community  and  of  Chinese  society  as  a 
whole.  It  is  not  possible  to  analyze  in  any  detail  the  implications 
of  this  aim,  and  so  to  discover  the  specific  objectives  which  should 
determine  the  curricula  and  the  activities  of  the  school.  But  a 
summary  of  these  objectives  can  be  given: 

a.  A  sound  and  well-developed  body,  and  such  physical 
habits  as  will  keep  the  body  in  a  healthy  condition  and  make 


ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION  75 

possible  a  clean,  normal,  vigorous  mental  and  moral  life.     This 
includes  knowledge  of  hygiene,  correct  personal  habits,  and  play. 

b.  Emphasis  on  the  fundamental  habits  and  attitudes  that 
make  up  .Christian  character  in  the  child.  Without  attempting  an 
exhaustive  list,  these  would  include:  (i)  habits  of  truth  and  of 
honesty  in  action  and  thought,  as  well  as  in  word;  (2)  a  habit  of 
looking  at  things  from  the  standpoint  of  others,  which  is  the  es- 
sence of  unselfishness,  this  to  include,  in  particular,  care  of  the 
weak  and  helpless  and  kindness  to  animals;  (3)  sensitiveness  to 
the  promptings  of  conscience,  and  a  growing  appreciation  of  the 
standards  of  right  conduct;  (4)  increasing  strength  of  will  to 
obey  the  dictates  of  an  enlightened  conscience ;  (5)  a  normal  child's 
attitude  of  trust  in  and  love  for  the  Heavenly  Father,  express- 
ing itself  not  only  in  worship  and  prayer  but  in  service  to  His 
other  children. 

c.  ( I )  A  sound  training  in  the  fundamental  tools  of 
education,  i.  e.,  reading,  writing,  and  the  elementary  operations  in 
arithmetic,  all  in  their  applications  to  the  life  which  the  student  is 
to  live.  This  should  be  made  the  heart  of  the  formal  teaching. 
By  the  end  of  the  lower  primary  the  child  should  be  able  to  read 
with  ease  and  pleasure  Mandarin  or  the  local  vernacular,  to  write 
ordinary  letters  and  business  forms,  and  to  use  his  knowledge  of 
arithmetic  in  the  ordinary  processes  of  his  daily  life.  On  the  com- 
pletion of  the  higher  primary  he  should  have  acquired  a  habit  of 
and  love  for  reading.  (2)  The  general  knowledge  that  every  child 
should  have  to  broaden  his  outlook  and  enlarge  his  sympathies, 
such  as  the  facts  of  health  and  sanitation,  understanding  of  the 
world  about  him  (including  nature  study,  stories  of  child  life  in 
other  lands,  and  the  main  facts  of  geography),  and  a  sympathy  for 
the  past,  gained  mainly  through  stories  from  the  history  of  his  own 
and  other  lands,  (3)  The  training  of  the  elementary  skills  of  the 
hand,  including  drawing,  handicrafts,  needlework  and  gardening. 
(4)  The  arousing  of  an  intelligent  interest  in  the  life  of  the  social 
groups  in  which  the  child  lives,  and  in  other  forms  of  society. 

d.  The  development  of  an  enlightened  patriotism,  and 
an  understanding  of  the  fundamental  duties  and  privileges  of  a 


^(i  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

member  of  Chinese  society.     This  would  start  from  the  studies 
of  the  pupil's  own  social  group. 

e.  Some  understanding  of  the  vocations  of  his  group,  in 
order  to  enlarge  his  sympathy,  to  arouse  his  interest  in  the  choice 
of  his  own  vocation,  and  to  give  him  some  training  (the  amount 
to  be  determined  by  careful  study)  in  the  chosen  vocation. 

f.  Training  in  courtesy  and  in  those  forms  of  etiquette 
which  are  the  expression  of  a  spirit  of  consideration  for  others. 

g.  Training  in  the  happy  use  of  leisure  through  the  ap- 
preciation of  books,  art  and  music ;  the  participation  in  games  and 
in  social  intercourse ;  and  the  cultivation  of  hobbies,  which  may 
grow  out  of  the  vocational  subjects  studied.  The  child  should  be 
so  taught  however,  that  he  finds  his  highest  pleasure  in  his  work. 

137.  In  general  the  standard  curriculum  of  the  government 
should  be  followed.  It  represents  the  serious  attempt  to  adapt 
to  Chinese  needs  the  experiences  of  other  lands.  It  leaves  enough 
room  for  variation,  so  that  the  Christian  school  may  make  its  own 
contribution  to  educational  method.  There  is  a  distinct  advantage, 
also,  in  the  use  of  a  somewhat  standardized  curriculum  for  the 
Christian  schools,  based  on  that  of  the  government,  with  care- 
fully worked-out  courses  especially  in  those  subjects  in  which 
there  is  variation  from  the  government  course.  This  can  be  done 
without  unduly  hampering  the  freedom  of  the  individual  school. 
Teachers  should  be  encouraged  to  experiment  and  to  put  the  result 
of  their  experiment  at  the  disposal  of  others.  The  curriculum 
should  be  marked  by  growth. 

138.  Religions  education. — The  subject  of  religious  educa- 
tion is  treated  in  a  separate  chapter,  but  one  aspect  must  be  con- 
sidered here.  Should  attendance  at  Bible  instruction  and  religious 
services  be  required  of  all  students  in  the  Christian  elementary 
school?  The  Christian  school  exists  primarily  for  the  training 
of  Christian  children ;  it  is  a  private  school,  and  no  compulsion 
is  put  upon  any  parent  to  send  his  child  to  it.  It  has  therefore 
seemed  reasonable  in  the  past  to  expect  all  students  alike  to  attend 
classes  in  religious  instruction  and  church  services.  If  this  is 
carefully  explained  to  the  parents  of  all  new  students  difficulty 


ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION  77 

is  not  likely  to  arise.  When  complaint  is  made  by  the  students 
themselves  on  the  score  of  lack  of  interest  the  cause  will  probably 
be  found  to  lie  in  the  way  in  which  classes  and  services  are  con- 
ducted. They  should  be  made  the  most  attractive  parts  of  the 
whole  school  life.  If  the  Christian  influence  of  the  school  is  made 
to  depend  upon  the  attractiveness  of  the  character  of  the  teacher 
and  the  spirit  of  the  whole  school  life  more  than  upon  set  lessons 
or  required  attendance,  it  will  matter  little  what  the  actual  regula- 
tions of  the  school  may  be.  Under  some  circumstances  it  may 
even  be  found  advisable  to  remove  definite  requirements. 

139.  Occupational  training. — In  the  face  of  the  poverty  of  so 
large  a  part  of  China's  population,  which  compels  the  withdrawal 
of  most  children  before  they  have  completed  the  elementary 
school,  it  seems  necessary  to  introduce  at  every  grade  courses  that 
will  give  the  students  some  direct  preparation  for  their  work  in 
life.  For  the  child  who  goes  no  further  than  the  first  four  years 
of  the  elementary  school,  occupational  training  should  take  the 
form  of  simple  handwork,  based  upon  the  local  industries,  home- 
work for  girls,  gardening,  including  the  care  of  animals  and 
poultry,  and  the  raising  of  silkworms  and  bees.  At  the  same  time 
the  occupational  values  of  reading,  writing,  and  arithmetic  should 
be  emphasized  as  the  necessary  basis  for  all  advance  in  life. 

Most  children  will  receive  their  final  schooling  in  the 
elementary  school,  and  they  should  therefore  be  given  direct 
training  in  occupational  courses  that  will  help  them  to  do  better 
in  life.  These  are  particularly  needed  for  children  in  boarding 
schools.  Choice  of  courses  to  be  offered  should  be  made  only  after 
a  study  of  the  occupations  of  the  locality.  Among  them  will  be 
gardening  and  simple  farmwork,  the  use  of  the  abacus  and  simple 
bookkeeping,  practical  lessons  in  domestic  science  for  girls,  train- 
ing in  some  of  the  fundamental  processes  that  underly  several 
industries  (such  as  wood-work,  metal-work,  leather-work,  and  de- 
signing) and  industries  that  can  be  carried  on  in  the  home  (such 
as  weaving  and  tailoring). 

140.  Mention  has  been  made  of  the  need  for  training  in  the 
care  of  health.     Painful  evidence  was  discovered  in  many  places 


78  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

of  neglect,  on  the  part  of  those  in  control  of  schools,  of  the  health 
of  their  students.  Unhygienic  classrooms,  crowded,  damp  or  ill- 
ventilated  dormitories,  unsuitable  desks  and  seats,  unspeakable 
toilet  arrangements,  filthy  and  unscreened  kitchens  and  dining- 
rooms,  all  were  found  in  every  part  of  China  and  often  in  what 
were  considered  schools  of  the  better  class.  Appalling  ignorance 
of,  or  strange  indifference  to,  the  rules  of  hygienic  living  mark  far 
too  many  schools.  Teachers  should  be  given  most  careful  training 
in  this  subject,  and  those  who  are  in  control  of  schools  should  listen 
to  the  complaints  of  the  teachers  and  see  that  bad  conditions  are 
righted.  Teachers  should  also  be  shown  how  to  detect  the  more 
simple  organic  defects,  as  of  the  eyes  and  ears,  and  the  approach 
of  the  diseases  of  childhood.  Arrangements  should  be  made 
whereby  all  children,  including  those  in  village  schools,  are  given 
a  medical  examination  at  least  once  a  year.  Here  the  cooperation 
of  Christian  doctors  and  nurses  is  necessary.  The  charge  some- 
times laid  against  missionaries — would  that  it  were  always  unjust — 
that  they  care  so  much  for  the  souls  of  the  Chinese  that  they  neglect 
to  care  for  their  bodies,  must  be  removed  by  a  persistent  campaign 
for  good  health. 

VI.    The  Teacher 

141.  We  have  come  to  the  most  important  factor  in  the 
success  of  the  Christian  schools,  the  teacher.  What  he  is,  the 
school  will  be.  For  this  reason  it  seems  necessary  here  to  refer 
briefly  to  certain  aspects  of  the  subject,  leaving,  however,  fuller 
treatment  to  the  Chapter  on  the  Education  of  Teachers.  We 
would  indicate  first  what  should  be  expected  in  the  man  or  woman 
who  is  to  train  the  boys  and  girls  in  the  Christian  schools. 

a.  He  should  have  a  sound  body  and  such  physical  habits 
as  are  desired  in  the  students.  He  should  also  be  fond  of  play 
so  that  he  may  lead  his  students  in  recreation. 

b.  In  his  own  life  he  should  embody  those  fundamental 
habits  and  attitudes  which  are  essential  elements  in  Christian  char- 
acter, and  he  should  have  that  personal  power  which  makes  charac- 
ter attractive. 


ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION  79 

c.  He  must  himself  be  master  of  the  tools  of  knowledge, 
especially  being  proficient  in  the  use  of  his  own  language.  His 
knowledge  of  other  subjects  should  be  sufficiently  extensive  to 
meet  all  legitimate  demands  of  the  elementary  curriculum,  and  exact 
so  far  as  it  goes.  He  needs  imagination  in  order  to  grasp  knowl- 
edge as  the  child  does,  objectively  and  in  its  human  relations. 
Method  is  even  more  important  to  the  elementary  teacher  than 
extensive  equipment  in  subject  matter. 

d.  He  should  be  able  to  use  his  hands,  respect  the  work 
of  men's  hands,  and  be  able  to  enlist  the  children's  interest  in 
practical  occupations. 

e.  Since  the  Christian  school  exists  primarily  for  the 
sake  of  the  Christian  community  the  teacher  should  have  a  close 
relation  to  the  church,  be  in  complete  sympathy  with  its  ideals, 
share  in  its  activities,  and  take  seriously  his  duty  as  its  representa- 
tive in  the  school.  His  loyalty  should  be  not  to  an  individual 
missionary  nor  to  the  mission  but  to  the  Christian  church.  On  the 
other  hand  he  should  be  guarded,  by  wise  organization,  from  too 
great  control  by  ignorant  or  conservative  local  church  boards  or 
individuals. 

142.  The  teacher  should  be  made  to  feel  that  in  the  Christian 
school  he  is  serving  his  country  quite  as  truly  as  if  he  were  in  a 
publicly  supported  school.  He  should  be  encouraged  to  ally  himself 
with  local  or  provincial  teachers'  associations.  In  this  and  in  other 
ways  everything  possible  should  be  done  to  remove  from  the 
school  all  that  marks  it  as  foreign.  Care  in  this  regard  may 
obviate  much  future  trouble. 

143.  Reference  must  be  made  to  the  need  for  a  wider  adop- 
tion of  modern  methods  of  instruction.  The  traditional  method 
in  China  has  been  a  lecture  by  the  teacher  with  the  student  listening 
in  respectful  silence.  This  is  still  the  method  largely  in  vogue 
in  middle  schools,  especially  those  in  the  public  system,  and  it  is 
found  in  many  primary  schools.  Probably  the  greatest  cause  of 
the  widespread  indifference  of  the  mass  of  the  people  to  the  new 
education  is  that  the  attempt  to  teach  new  subjects  by  the  methods 
formerly  used  with  the  classics,  has  resulted  in  failure  to  give  the 


8o  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

child  a  training  of  value.  The  government  has  seen  the  impor- 
tance of  teacher  training  and  is  succeeding  in  the  public  nor- 
mal schools  to  a  degree  that  is  unrealized  by  many  missionaries. 
It  would  be  a  safe  prophecy  that  Christian  elementary  edu- 
cation will  stand  or  fall  during  the  next  ten  years  according  as 
it  awakes  or  not  to  the'  absolute  necessity  for  training  its 
teachers. 

144.  Normal  training,  however,  is  not  enough  to  guarantee 
the  continued  success  of  the  teacher.  No  one  can  do  his  best 
work  in  isolation,  and  most  of  the  elementary  teachers  are  obliged 
to  pass  months  at  a  time  without  an  opportunity  to  discuss  their 
problems  with  others  who  understand  them.  They  need  the  stimu- 
lus of  some  one  who  can  bring  'fresh  vision,  new  methods, 
and  direct  advice  on  the  numerous  difficulties  of  the  class- 
room. This  is  particularly  the  case  where  the  majority  of 
the  teachers  have  had  little  or  no  professional  training.  The  obser- 
vation of  the  Commission  in  China  is  that  many  mediocre  teachers 
are  doing  excellent  work,  provided  they  are  visited  regularly  by 
sympathetic  and  skilled  supervisors.  It  is  strongly  recommended 
that  all  elementary  schools  be  grouped  in  districts,  that  a  super- 
visor be  engaged  for  each  district,  and  that,  if  it  is  necessary,  in 
order  to  carry  out  the  plan,  to  close  some  schools,  this  be  done 
in  order  that  the  most  experienced  teachers  may  be  freed  for  these 
essential  positions.  No  one  should  be  given  supervisory  responsi- 
bility unless  he  has  taught  successfully  for  some  years  and  has 
then  been  given  definite  training  for  the  work  of  overseeing  and 
directing  teachers.  Since  the  supervisor  should  be  thoroughly 
familiar  with  the  conditions  existing  in  the  elementary  schools  it 
follows  that  he  should,  ideally,  be  a  Chinese.  Foreign  super- 
visors should  be  employed  only  when  Chinese  with  suital)le  expe- 
rience and  training  cannot  be  found.  Good  salaries  should  be  paid 
in  order  that  the  best  men  may  be  secured. 

The  importance  of  this  recommendation  cannot  Ijc  over- 
estimated. No  one  change  in  educational  policy  will  mean  such 
an  advance  in  elementary  education  as  the  general  adoption  of  a 
plan  of  expert  supervision.     The  training  of  supervisors  should 


ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION  8i 

be  made  one  of  the  strongest  features  of  normal  schools  and  col- 
lege courses  in  education. 

145.  With  the  introduction  of  coeducation  into  lower  grades, 
the  question  has  arisen  whether  men  or  women  should  teach  them. 
As  a  matter  of  fact  some  of  the  best  government  schools  have 
both  men  and  women  as  teachers  in  their  lower  grades,  and  this 
seems  a  satisfactory  arrangement  in  a  graded  school  with  a  number 
of  teachers.  If  kindergarten  methods  are  used  in  the  first  two 
years  of  the  course  it  would  seem  better  that  the  schools  should  be 
taught  by  women.  In  one-teacher  village  schools  a  male  teacher 
would,  as  a  rule,  be  preferred,  both  because  of  the  problem  of 
chaperonage  for  a  young  woman,  and  also  because  of  the  variety 
of  activities  in  which  it  is  recommended  that  he  engage.  It  would 
be  ideal  in  the  village  situation  if  both  husband  and  wife  were 
trained  teachers,  and  shared  in  the  responsible  duties  of  the 
position. 

VII.    Organization  and  Control 

146.  Christian  elementary  schools  were  originally  opened  by 
individual  missionaries  and  were  unrelated  to  each  other.  In  too 
many  places  they  still  retain  this  isolation.  Where  connections 
have  been  formed  it  is  chiefly  among  schools  under  the  direction 
of  one  missionary,  or  in  one  mission  district.  The  same  condition, 
usually  in  its  extreme  form,  exists  in  the  case  of  schools  con- 
ducted by  independent  churches  or  church  bodies.  Modern  edu- 
cational practice  in  other  lands  is  all  against  this  lack  of  system, 
and  experience  in  China  shows  how  ineffective  is  independency  as  a 
school  policy.  Some  form  of  organization  into  a  coordinated  sys- 
tem is  essential  to  economical  and  successful  administration.  See 
Part  II,  Sections  101-114. 

147.  The  following  comprehensive  plan  of  organization  (148- 
151)  is  recommended.  It  w^ould  naturally  include  both  elementary 
and  secondary  schools,  but  definite  reference  is  made  here  only 
to  its  relation  to  elementary  schools.  Control  should  be  divided 
among  three  administrative  bodies,  central,  local,  and  intermediate. 


82  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

148.  In  each  provincial  area  (see  Section  107)  there  should 
be  a  strong  central  board  representing  all  types  and  grades  of 
schools.  Its  functions  in  relation  to  elementary  education  would 
include : 

a.  Determination  of  general  educational  policies ;  de- 
cision as  to  the  establishment  or  closing  of  schools,  and  their  classi- 
fication ;  legislation  on  matters  affecting  the  system  as  a  whole. 

b.  The  establishment  of  minimum  essentials  in  buildings 
and  equipment,  curricula,  qualifications  of  teachers,  and  other  simi- 
lar matters ;  and  the  adoption  of  methods  for  insuring  adherence 
to  these  standards. 

c.  The  provision  of  means  for  the  adequate  training  of 
teachers,  for  their  regular  supervision,  and  for  their  improve- 
ment in  service  through  such  agencies  as  summer  schools  and 
teachers'  institutes. 

d.  The  testing  of  the  results  of  the  educational  process, 
by  the  inspection  of  schools,  examination  of  students,  and  the 
use  of  standard  tests. 

e.  The  disbursement  of  central  school  funds  supplied  by 
the  Mission  Boards  and  the  church  organizations. 

149.  Four  types  of  central  control  are  found  through  boards 
or  committees  of  (i)  a  mission,  (2)  a  church  organization,  (3) 
the  ecclesiastical  body  representing  a  church  and  a  mission,  and 
(4)  an  interdenominational  regional  association  or  union.  Where 
boards  of  types  (i)  and  (2)  exist  in  the  same  area,  or  are  con- 
trolling schools  of  the  same  denomination  they  should  be  combined 
in  a  board  of  type  (3).  Membership  on  the  board  should  be 
dependent  upon  ability  to  direct  education,  but  one-half,  at  least, 
of  the  total  membership  should  be  Chinese.  For  the  sake  of  effi- 
ciency and  economy  in  administration,  it  is  recommended  that 
interdenominational  provincial  or  regional  boards  of  education  be 
formed  to  which  the  Mission  and  church  organizations  should 
delegate  most  of  the  functions  listed  above,  with  the  exception  of 
the  decisions  as  to  where  schools  should  be  opened  or  closed,  and 
the  disbursement  of  certain  funds.  While  the  engagement  and 
immediate  control  of  supervisors  will  often  be  most  easily  under- 


ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION  83 

taken  through  the  existing  denominational  organization,  the  general 
direction  of  supervision  should  be  under  the  provincial  boards,  in 
order  that  the  whole  system  may  be  standardized. 

150.  A  local  school  board  is  a  necessary  part  of  the  admin- 
istrative machinery. 

a.  It  shculd  be  closely  related  to  the  governing  body  of 
the  local  church,  but  it  is  advisable  that  it  be  a  separate  board, 
appointed  for  the  sole  purpose  of  serving  the  interests  of  the 
school.  It  should  be  composed  of  members  of  the  church,  the 
pastor,  and  the  supervisor. 

b.  The  functions  of  the  school  board  should  be  clearly 
defined.  They  are  to  provide  and  maintain  adequate  school  prem- 
ises and  equipment,  to  share  with  the  supervisor  or  the  district 
board  in  the  appointment  of  teachers,  to  collect  local  contributions 
to  school  funds,  to  pay  the  salaries  of  teachers,  and  to  assist  the 
teachers  if  asked  to  do  so.  It  is  not  in  any  way  part  of  its  function 
to  supervise  instruction  or  to  interfere  in  the  management  of  the 
school ;  but  it  may  make  recommendations  or  complaints  on  these 
matters  to  the  district  board  or  the  supervisor. 

c.  The  school  board  should  endeavor  to  interest  the 
church  members  in  the  school  and  to  secure  the  attendance  of  all 
the  Christian  children  of  the  community.  This  may  require  finan- 
cial assistance  from  the  church  in  cases  where  extreme  poverty 
would  make  it  impossible  for  children  to  attend  school. 

151.  Between  the  central  and  the  local  boards  there  should 
exist,  as  an  important  intermediate  body  of  control,  the  district 
board.  It  would  be  the  connecting  link  between  the  legislating 
body  and  that  which  immediately  controls  the  school. 

a.  Its  functions  are  to  see  that  the  requirements  of  the 
central  board  are  met,  to  appoint  and  supervise  teachers,  and  to 
handle  funds  granted  by  the  central  authority  for  the  schools  of 
the  district. 

b.  A  district  should  have  at  least  one  officer  giving  his 
whole  time  to  supervision.  While  he  may  for  the  time  being  be 
a  foreign  missionary,  it  is  anticipated  that  all  such  positions  will 
in  the  near  future  be  filled  by  Chinese. 


84  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

c.  For  the  present,  existing  mission  or  church  districts 
will  make  the  simplest  units  of  intermediate  control ;  but  where 
a  number  of  schools  of  different  church  connection  are  located  in 
the  same  district,  union  boards  are  recommended,  especially  for 
the  purposes  of  supervision.  It  may  be  necessary  to  differentiate 
between  the  educational  functions  of  supervision  and  the  financial 
functions  of  superintendency,  the  latter  remaining  with  the  church 
or  mission  board. 

On  the  relation  of  the  provincial  boards  to  one  another 
see  Section  112. 


VIII.    Finance 

152.  The  methods  already  suggested  for  the  improvement  of 
the  existing  Christian  elementary  education  call  for  a  la  ge  increase 
in  expenditure,  especially  for  better  buildings,  higher  salaries  for 
teachers,  and  the  addition  of  a  large  number  of  supervisors  and  of 
members  of  the  central  administrative  bodies.  Mission  Boards 
should  make  larger  appropriations  for  elementary  schools  than  they 
have  done  in  the  past.  But  permanent  support  of  elementary  edu- 
cation by  foreign  missions,  even  if  possible,  would  be  a  calamity. 
As  rapidly  as  it  can  be  done  without  injury  to  the  schools,  their 
support  should  pass  to  the  Chinese  church. 

153.  School  funds  will  be  drawn  from  two  sources,  local 
and  central.  As  large  a  proportion  as  possible  of  the  cost  of  each 
school,  including  the  capital  cost  of  the  building,  its  equipment  and 
maintenance,  and  the  salaries  of  the  teachers,  should  be  met  by 
the  local  Christian  community ;  and  these  local  funds  should  be 
handled  by  the  local  school  board.  What  is  needed  in  order  to 
supplement  this  amount  should  be  given  from  the  central  fund  by 
the  central  or  district  board  of  education  in  the  form  of  grants-in- 
aid,  conditioned  upon  the  maintenance  of  definite  standards.  The 
desirability  of  securing  support  from  the  local  Christian  commun- 
ity should  not,  however,  be  made  an  excuse  for  poor  schools. 
Where  a  school  is  maintained  the  grant-in-aid  should  be  sufficient 
to  insure  real  efficiency.  • 


ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION  85 

154.  Appropriations  from  the  Mission  Boards  or  the  church 
organization  in  China,  as  well  as  any  special  funds  otherwise  se- 
cured, should  be  disbursed  by  the  largest  controlling  unit,  the 
central  or  the  district  board,  that  directly  represents  the  ecclesias- 
tical body  concerned.  It  should  allocate  funds  to  the  local  school 
boards  on  the  basis  stated.  It  may  be  feasible  at  some  future  time 
for  the  interdenominational  provincial  board  of  education  to  handle 
these  central  funds  as  a  whole ;  but  that  is  not  essential  to  the 
plan.  Existing  mission  and  church  organizations  should  be  utilized 
for  the  present. 

In  addition  to  the  money  appropriated  for  individual 
schools,  funds  must  be  found  for  the  cost  of  district  supervision 
and  of  central  administration,  both  provincial  and  national.  Within 
reason  these  expenditures  should  be  a  first  charge  upon  central 
funds.  Another  matter  of  prior  claim  is  the  erection,  and  a  large 
share  in  the  support,  if  necessary,  of  a  few  centrally-located  model 
village  and  town  schools  which,  as  experience  has  proved,  are  very 
effective  in  stimulating  local  boards  to  establish  similar  schools. 
Where  central  funds  are  limited  they  can  best  be  concentrated  on 
these  two  items  of  supervision  and  the  conduct  of  model  schools. 
This  will  involve  the  closing  of  many  feeble  schools ;  but  it  must 
be  repeated  that  only  so  many  schools  should  be  permitted  as  can 
adequately  realize  the  standards  of  educational  and  Christian  effi- 
ciency. 

155.  The  boards  that  handle  school  funds  should  be  com- 
posed of  both  Chinese  and  foreign  members,  even  where  for  the 
time  being  most  of  the  money  comes  from  abroad.  The  ultimate 
ideal  is  to  bring  all  elementary  education  under  Chinese  direction ; 
the  realization  of  this  ideal  must  not  be  delayed  because  of  a  false 
conception  of  the  conditions  under  which  funds  contributed  from 
abroad  may  be  administered.  It  is  frequently  said  that  the  body 
or  the  persons  disbursing  funds  must  be  of  the  same  nationality 
as  those  that  contribute  them.  We  would  question  this  assumption, 
in  the  admirable  words  of  an  article  on  "The  Relation  of  Church 
and  Mission  in  India,"  in  the  International  Reviczv  of  Missions 
for  April,  1920, 


86  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

"The  money  given  by  Christian  people  in  the  West  for  the  sup- 
port of  missionary  work  is  given  by  them  for  the  work  of  Christ's  Kingdom, 
and  while  it  is  entrusted  to  a  missionary  society  to  disburse,  it  in  no  way 
follows  that  the  control  of  such  money  must  be  in  the  hands  of  men 
personally  known  to  or  racially  kin  with  those  who.  have  given  it.  The 
best  mind  of  the  supporters  of  missionary  work  will  look  only  to  see  that 
the  money  given  is  most  fruitfully  used  for  the  extension  of  the  Kingdom 
of  God." 

Experience  in  not  a  few  places  is  shovi^ing  that  an  added 
sense  of  trusteeship  comes  to  the  Christian  church  when  it  is 
wisely  invited  to  share  in  the  disbursement  of  funds  originating 
from  abroad. 

IX.    Summary  of  Recommendations 

(i)  The  fundamental  aim  of  the  Christian  school  is  the 
development  in  the  students  of  Christian  character.  For  the  full 
realization  of  this  aim  the  school  must  be  educationally  efficient 
and  successful  in  embodying  and  imparting  the  Christian  spirit. 
No  school  should  be  maintained  which  does  not  justify  its  exist- 
ence in  both  regards. 

(2)  The  Christian  school  exists  primarily  for  the  good  of 
the  Christian  community,  and  the  distribution  of  schools  and  the 
methods  of  their  operation  should  be  determined  by  its  needs.  The 
application  of  this  principle  does  not  imply  the  exclusion  of  non- 
Christian  children,  but  a  greater  concentration  of  effort  upon  the 
task  of  giving  an  adequate  education  to  all  the  children  of  the 
Christian  community. 

(3)  It  is  natural  and  right  that  the  public  authorities 
should  look  upon  the  Christian  schools  as  in  reality,  if  not  in 
name,  a  part  of  the  nation-wide  system  of  education.  Those  who 
direct  and  teach  in  the  schools  should  see  that  they  embody  na- 
tional ideals  of  education,  while  they  also  make  their  distinctive 
contribution  to  Chinese  educational  practice. 

(4)  Both  in  administration  and  in  the  content  of  their 
instruction  the  Christian  schools  should  be  intimately  related  to 
the  life  of  the  community  in  which  they  are  established.     Espe- 


ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION  87 

dally  in  the  farm  village  should  the  school  definitely  serve  as  a 
centre  for  the  whole  community. 

(5)  Christian  schools  should  be  definitely  organized  into 
a  complete  system,  with  district,  provincial  and  national  boards  of 
education,  each  with  its  own  functions  and  its  own  executive  offi- 
cers. The  membership  of  these  boards  should  be  largely  represen- 
tative of  the  Chinese  church. 

(6)  Greater  emphasis  should  be  put  upon  the  paramount 
part  in  the  realization  of  the  aims  of  the  Christian  school  that  is 
played  by  the  teacher ;  and  much  more  adequate  provision  should 
be  made  for  the  selection  and  professional  training  of  teachers. 

(7)  Expert  supervision  of  all  teachers  is  an  imperative 
need,  and  schools  should  be  grouped  in  districts  and  a  supervisor 
appointed  for  each  district.  The  training  of  men  and  women  for 
these  important  positions  should  be  one  of  the  first  tasks  of  an  en- 
larged programme  of  normal  schools  and  college  courses  in  edu- 
cation, 

(8)  The  principle  should  be  adopted  and  adhered  to,  that 
only  so  many  schools  shall  be  maintained  as  reach  the  standards 
determined  by  the  central  boards. 

(9)  Central  funds  appropriated  by  Mission  Boards  and 
other  bodies  should  be  used  mainly  for  the  support  of  the  super- 
visory and  administrative  staff,  the  training  of  teachers,  the  main- 
tenance of  a  few  model  schools,  and  the  assistance  of  local  schools 
with  grants-in-aid.  An  increasing  share  in  the  support  of  the 
elementary  schools  should  be  secured  from  local  sources  by  means 
of  fees,  church  contributions,  and  individual  gifts ;  but  too  early  and 
extreme  application  of  this  principle  to  an  individual  school  must 
not  be  allowed  to  injure  its  efficiency. 


CHAPTER    II 

SECONDARY    EDUCATION 

I.    The  Specific  Function  and  Central  Importance  of  Christian 

Middle  Schools 

156.  Middle  schools  constitute  the  center  of  the  educational 
system.  They  supply  a  large  part  of  the  teachers  who  develop 
the  lower  schools.  They  supply  the  most  stable  and  self-supporting 
part  of  the  educational  pyramid,  and  furnish  the  best  and  largest 
portion  of  the  students  who  enter  the  Christian  colleges. 

157.  The  Christian  middle  schools  are  at  this  stage  the  most 
vital  part  of  the  whole  Christian  enterprise.  They  influence  young 
people  at  the  time  when  they  are  making  life  decisions,  choosing 
vocations,  fixing  personal  habits  and  social  attitudes,  beginning  to 
form  permanent  attachments  to  friends,  masters,  school,  and 
church,  and  accepting  or  rejecting  Christianity.  They  touch  the 
great  middle  classes  of  society  among  which  the  church  is  now 
growing  and  gaining  its  greatest  strength.  They  furnish  the 
sturdy  supporters  of  Christian  society. 

158.  Middle  schools  are  depending  on.  fees  for  a  large  part  of 
their  support,  and  as  they  improve  in  quality,  increase  in  size,  in 
economic  efficiency,  and  in  the  ability  to  meet  the  needs  of  their 
constituency,  they  will  be  able  to  secure  still  more  support  from 
their  fees.  They  should  also  receive  an  ever-increasing  support 
from  interested  Chinese,  especially  from  their  former  students. 
It  is  not,  however,  likely  that  the  church  itself  can  soon  undertake 
the  main  support  of  this  grade  of  school.  Therefore  the  missions 
should  consider  the  support  of  their  middle  schools  one  of  the 


SECONDARY  EDUCATION'  89 

first  and  largest  items  on  their  budgets.  In  some  missions  this 
may  mean  closing  some  primary  schools  or  withdrawing  from 
college  work  or  definitely  uniting  with  other  missions  to  make  the 
middle  school  strong. 

The  present  relative  emphasis  upon  secondary  and  higher 
education  is  shown  by  the  appropriations  to  the  respective  types ; 
more  than  half  a  million  dollars  to  sixteen  colleges  and  universi- 
ties, only  a  quarter  million  to  one  hundred  and  fifty  middle  schools. 
That  means  an  average  of  approximately  the  cost  of  one  mis- 
sionary to  each  middle  school.  Each  school  should  have  in  addi- 
tion to  the  maintenance  of  its  own  principal,  unencumbered  by 
other  mission  work,  at  least  the  cost  of  one  full-time  teacher  for 
each  two-thirds  of  a  class  (six  for  four  classes)  or  for  each  fifteen 
students,  and  in  addition  an  adequate  sum  for  supplies,  equipment, 
and  running  expenses.  According  to  our  estimates  the  cost  of  a 
good  school  of  six  classes,  with  about  one  hundred  and  seventy-five 
students  and  a  minimum  staff,  would  exceed  its  fees  by  from 
$2,500.00  to  $5,100.00.  The  Middle  School  Survey  of  1918  indi- 
cates an  average  net  cost  of  between  $3,000.00  and  $4,000.00. 

159.    The  specific  aims  of  the  Christian  middle  schools  are 
four : 

a.  To  provide  every  Christian  boy  and  girl  of  twelve  or 
fourteen  years  of  age  with  an  opportunity  for  such  an  education 
as  will  enable  him  or  her  to  fill  a  useful,  independent,  and  more 
than  ordinary  place  in  society.  This  means  that  practically  every 
school  must  give  both  general  training  for  life  and  special  occu- 
pational training. 

b.  To  present  the  Christian  religion  and  its  program  of 
evangelism,  social  betterment,  and  patriotic  service. 

c.  To  enlist  and  train  the  workers  upon  whom  the  suc- 
cess of  the  Christian  enterprise  chiefly  depends,  especially  teachers 
and  evangelists. 

d.  To  open  a  way  for  the  few  of  outstanding  ability  to 
proceed  to  university  and  professional  training. 


90  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

II.    General  Statement  of  the  Situation  and  Outlook 

i6o.  The  middle  schools  of  the  government  have  not  proved 
adequate  to  the  demands  for  secondary  education  in  China.  There 
is  large  opportunity  for  the  development  of  private  schools,  which 
is  being  taken  advantage  of  by  Roman  Catholic  and  non-Christian 
organizations  as  well  as  by  Protestant  churches  and  missions. 

i6i.  At  present  the  course  of  study  in  government  schools, 
which  is  followed  fairly  closely  by  the  schools  of  most  missions, 
consists  of  a  four-year  lower  primary  school,  a  three-year  higher 
primary  school,  and  a  four-year  middle  school.  In  general  the 
higher  primary  school  as  well  as  the  middle  school  has  been  a 
boarding  school,  and  in  most  cases  the  middle  schools  have  been 
organized  from  classes  added  step  by  step  to  the  higher  primary 
schools. 

If  the  proposed  plan  of  six  years  of  elementary  work  and 
three  years  each  of  junior  and  senior  middle  school  work,  is 
adopted,  as  it  seems  likely  to  be,  the  Christian  schools  should  also 
adopt  that  plan. 

162.  Protestant  Christian  middle  schools  for  boys  are  of  the 
following  types: 

(a.)  The  general  type,  a  small  middle  school  with  a  large 
higher  primary  school  attached ;  the  course  giving  little  or  no  occu- 
pational training,  and  not  much  training  for  life  except  of  a 
linguistic  and  cultural  sort.  These  schools  attract  chiefly  on 
account  of  their  English  classes  and  their  good  discipline.  The 
course  usually  conforms  fairly  closely  to  college  preparatory  re- 
quirements. 

(b.)  The  Anglo-Chinese  college  type,  predominant  in  the 
coast  ports  where  the  training  in  English  and  Chinese  have  occu- 
pational value,  and  prepare  the  students  for  colleges  in  China  and 
abroad.  These  schools  are  usually  large  and  flourishing  with  the 
teaching  partly  in  English.  Higher  primary  schools  are  not  always 
attached  to  schools  of  this  type. 

(c.)  Several  degrees  and  types  of  compromise,  varying 
from  the  smaller  vernacular  school  (giving  one  period  of  English  a 


SECONDARY  EDUCATION  91 

day)  to  the  large  middle  schools  attached  to  colleges,  which  usually 
offer  a  strictly  college  preparatory  course,  and  teach  in  English. 

(d.)  The  occupational  type.  Such  schools  are  rare. 
There  are  a  few  small  normal  schools  and  a  few  which  give,  or 
plan  to  give,  industrial  or  agricultural  training. 

163.  Some  Christian  middle  schools  are  union  enterprises,  but 
most  of  them  are  denominational  in  management,  though  fre- 
quently not  strictly  so  in  student  body,  or  even  in  staff.  Some  are 
privately  managed  and  are  not  under  any  mission,  while  others 
are  managed  by  the  Chinese  church,  with  or  without  financial  aid 
from  the  mission.  Some  mission  middle  schools,  with  mission- 
aries on  the  staff,  have  Chinese  principals. 

164.  Christian  schools  usually  have  good  grounds;  fairly 
good  buildings;  less  good  equipment;  curricula  which  are  not 
closely  enough  related  to  the  needs  of  the  students;  teachers  of 
fine  spirit,  some  of  whom  have  had  professional  training,  almost 
all  of  whom  are  overworked;  physical  training,  the  quality  of 
which  varies  greatly  in  different  schools;  good  school  athletics; 
and  a  strong  spirit  of  service  and  patriotism.  Contrary  to  a  rather 
general  impression,  the  teaching  of  Chinese  is  fairly  good  in 
these  schools. 


III.    Coeducation 

165.  There  is  practically  no  coeducation  in  middle  schools 
in  China,  although  it  has  been  recently  approved  by  some  govern- 
ment authorities.  Neither  the  Chinese  nor  foreigners,  with  whom 
the  Commission  discussed  the  subject,  favored  coeducation  at  this 
period,  and  the  Commission  does  not  recommend  it.  See  Sec- 
tion 457. 

IV.    Occupational  Training  for  Boys 

166.  An  education  of  middle  school  grade  may  be  made  a 
suitable  preparation  for  the  following  occupations: 

a.  Teaching. — More    middle    school    graduates   go    into 


92  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

teaching  than  into  any  other  occupation.  In  some  cases  the  num- 
ber of  graduates  who  enter  teaching  is  greater  than  that  of  those 
going  into  all  other  occupations.  The  development  of  the  Chris- 
tian church,  and  the  Christian  educational  system,  depends  in 
large  measure  upon  the  teachers,  yet  the  preparation  of  teachers 
has  been  badly  neglected.  Immediate  and  extensive  efforts  should 
be  madeto  provide  adequate  training  for  this  occupation. 

b.  Business. — This  occupation  receives  the  next  largest 
number  of  graduates,  and  a  large  majority  of  those  who  are  not 
graduated.  It  may  not  bear  the  same  relation  to  the  Christian 
enterprise  as  does  the  teaching  profession,  but  it  does  have  a  very 
important  relation  to  it.  The  church,  it  is  evident,  is  now  develop- 
ing most  strongly  among  the  upper  middle  classes  and  the  Chris- 
tian middle  schools  are  drawing  students  chiefly  from  the  busi- 
ness portion  of  the  communities  they  serve.  The  parents  of  their 
students  are  mainly  professional  people,  merchants,  shippers, 
agents,  bankers,  managers  and  owners  of  land  and  houses.  The 
demands,  therefore,  for  preparation  for  such  occupations  are  in 
most  cases  second  only  to  those  for  teacher-training. 

c.  Clerical  positions. — These  require  a  moderate  knowl- 
edge of  Chi-nese  and  English,  and  claim  the  next  largest  number 
of  middle  school  graduates.  These  are  office  positions  in  foreign 
and  Chinese  firms,  in  schools,  in  such  organizations  as  the  Young 
Men's  Christian  Association,  in  publishing  houses,  newspaper  offices, 
government  offices,  steamship  and  railway  offices,  post  offices,  cus- 
toms, telegraph  and  cable  services.  It  must  be  frankly  recognized 
that  the  desire  for  preparation  for  business  positions,  and  for  these 
clerical  tasks,  has  up  to  the  present  time  been  one  of  the  chief 
factors  in  the  development  of  Christian  middle  schools.  The 
schools  which  have  offered  preparation  for  such  positions  have 
been  able  to  charge  good  tuition  fees,  and  have  prospered  finan- 
cially. The  demand  for  such  preparation  has,  together  with  the 
entrance  requirements  of  the  colleges,  determined  the  amount  of 
English  taught  in  the  schools.  It  may  be  urged  that  the  prepara- 
tion of  boys  for  such  tasks  is  not  the  purpose  of  the  Christian 
schools,  and  should  not  claim  too  much  of  their  attention.     Yet 


SECONDARY  EDUCATION  93 

the  service  which  these  young  men  may  render  China  and  Chris- 
tianity ought  not  to  be  underestimated. 

d.  Agriculture  and  allied  occupations. — Inasmuch  as  the 
population  of  China  is  mainly  rural,  we  are  forced  to  consider 
the  neglect  of  training  for  rural  occupations  a  serious  national, 
educational,  and  mission  problem.  The  church  must  relate  its 
rural  schools  to  rural  needs.  Vocational  training  must  be  given. 
The  extent  to  which  it  should  be  made  prominent  in  comparison 
with  the  types  named  above,  which  are  closer  to  the  work  of  the 
Christian  enterprise  on  the  one  hand,  and  to  the  demands  of  the 
chief  supporting  constituency  on  the  other,  is  a  question.  See 
Section  360. 

e.  Industrial  arts. — This  term  does  not  apply  to  trades 
that  demand  only  apprenticeship  training,  or  to  technical  occupa- 
tions which  require  more  than  middle  school  training.  The  selec- 
tion of  such  subjects,  and  the  discovery  or  training  of  teachers 
for  them,  are  exceedingly  difficult  tasks.  The  agricultural  teachers 
will  come  directly  and  almost  solely  from  the  colleges  of  agricul- 
ture. But  there  is  little  hope  of  any  similar  source  of  supply  for 
teachers  of  the  industrial  arts.  Teachers  must  come  out  of  the 
trades  and  industries  as  well  as  from  technical  schools.  Close 
connection  with  those  trades  and  industries  must  therefore  be 
maintained. 

Fine  aits,  especially  those  related  to  industries,  would 
probably  constitute  the  core  of  the  studies  in  a  school  of  industrial 
arts.  This  at  once  relates  this  type  of  training  to  the  school  system 
as  a  whole,  since  teachers  and  supervisors  of  drawing  and  art  are 
needed  in  all  grades  of  schools  as  well  as  in  many  important  in- 
dustries, and  in  business.  Designing  is  an  important  profession 
in  China.  Surveying,  the  supervising  of  building  construction, 
draughting,  photography,  and  interior  decoration  are  occupations 
which  could  be  included  in  this  group  of  industrial  arts.  Others 
of  more  nearly  trade-school  grade  would  be  included  in  schools 
ranking  as  junior  middle  schools,  or  on  the  other  hand,  in  schools 
giving  teacher-training. 

The  important  question  of  the  relation  of  the  church  and 


94  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

its  educational  work  to  the  new  and  rapidly  advancing  industrial- 
ism in  China  needs  careful  study.     See  Sections  387-408. 


V.    Types  of  Schools  to  be  Developed  for  Boys 

167.  The  first  practical  question,  arising  from  the  need  for 
occupational  training,  is  whether  such  courses  should  be  com- 
bined in  a  single  school  and  if  so  what  types  of  schools  would 
naturally  result.  As  a  rule  a  school  should  give  but  one  kind 
of  course.  But  in  view  of  the  importance  of  teacher-training,  and 
the  broad  character  of  its  needs,  and  inasmuch  as  so  many  middle 
school  graduates  take  up  teaching,  this  type  of  occupational  train- 
ing ought  usually  to  be  included  with  each  of  the  others.  The 
business  and  clerical  types  are  so  much  alike  that  they  can  without 
difficulty  be  given  together.  This  policy  would  point  to  the  follow- 
ing schools  as  the  common  types : 

1st  type — The  normal  school,  giving  teacher-training. 

2nd  type — The  city  middle  school,  preparing  for  busi- 
ness and  teaching. 

3rd  type — The  rural  school,  specializing  in  agriculture 
and  teacher-training. 

4th  type — The  technical  school,  emphasizing  industrial 
arts  and  teacher-training. 

168.  The  second  question  is  as  to  which  of  these  schools 
should  be  the  common  type. 

Although  the  training  of  teachers  is  of  prime  impor- 
tance, a  school  limited  to  that  work  should  not  be  the  usual  or 
ordinary  type  of  middle  school. 

The  agricultural  and  industrial  arts  schools,  with  their 
normal  courses,  are  the  ones  which,  in  the  long  run,  will  do  most 
for  the  uplift  of  the  mass  of  the  population,  and  no  finer  task 
could  be  undertaken  by  the  forces  of  the  church  than  the  develop- 
ment of  these  schools.  Such  schools  are,  however,  expensive  and 
difficult  to  develop,  and  will  have  to  be  financed  largely  by  the 
missions,  since  they  are  usually  for  the  poorer  classes,  and  would 
thus  receive  little  in  fees  or  local  contributions. 


SECONDARY  EDUCATION  95 

The  commercial-normal  school,  which  is  closest  in  type 
to  the  existing  schools,  carries  with  it  the  largest  measure  of  local 
support,  and  comes  nearest  to  meeting  college  entrance  require- 
ments. 

169.  Next  comes  the  practical  question  as  to  whether  each 
of  these  schools  should  add  a  college  preparatory  course ;  leave 
that  training  to  certain  types  only,  or  to  special  schools ;  or  pro- 
vide for  college  preparation  in  some  other  way. 

170.  The  proportion  of  middle  school  students  who  actually 
enter  college  varies  greatly  in  different  schools  but  is  in  general 
very  small.  If  certain  middle  schools  attached  to  colleges  are 
counted  out,  the  proportion  is  still  smaller.  It  seems,  therefore, 
only  right  to  provide  occupational  training  for  the  major  frac- 
tion who  do  not  go  beyond  the  middle  school,  and  at  the  same 
time  to  afford  opportunity  for  other  students  to  proceed  to  fur- 
ther study. 

171.  If  the  experience  of  any  school  has  shown  that  all,  or 
nearly  all,  of  its  entering  students  actually  take  a  college  educa- 
tion and  so  obtain  occupational  training  there,  it  may  legitimately 
have  a  program  of  studies  including  subjects  of  the  traditional 
college-preparatory  character.  Nevertheless,  every  effort  should 
be  made  in  such  schools  to  make  the  whole  program  of  studies 
as  full  of  real  life-value  as  possible.  Let  it  be  carefully  noted 
that  such  schools  are  not  generally  recommended  by  the  Commis- 
sion, and  also  that  it  is  essentially  a  part  of  the  recommendation 
that  the  occupational  subjects  in  other  schools  should  be  so  han- 
dled as  to  afford  the  cultural  values  usually  ascribed  to  less  prac- 
tical subject  matter. 

172.  Most  schools  send  the  majority  of  their  upper-class 
students  and  graduates  out  into  life,  and  to  meet  the  needs  of 
these,  our  Christian  schools  should  be  occupational  schools,  usually 
of  the  commercial-normal  type.  No  subject  should  be  included 
in  the  curriculum  of  schools  of  this  type  simply  on  the  ground 
that  it  is  at  present  considered  necessary  as  preparatory  to  col- 
lege. On  this  principle  such  subjects  as  higher  mathematics  and 
ancient  history,  used  in  the  traditional  classical  sense,  would  be 


g6  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

excluded.  These  tend  to  create  a  divisive  factor  in  school  life, 
the  result  of  which  is  likely  to  be  an  unnatural  crowding  of  the 
"more  honorable"  college  preparatory  course  by  students  with  no 
real  college  hopes.  The  college  course  should  be  so  planned  as 
to  give  the  occupationally  trained  men  the  same  standing  as  the 
college  preparatory  students.  Thus  there  being  no  handicap  in 
taking  an  occupational  course,  and  no  loss  of  prestige  by  not  tak- 
ing some  other  sort  of  course,  all  students  will  take  one  of  the 
occupational  courses,  and  those  who  do  not  go  on  to  college  will 
go  out  into  life  prepared  to  render  real  service,  to  understand 
the  social  and  ethical  values  of  their  particular  callings,  and  with 
a  sense  of  gratitude  toward  the  institution. 

173.  The  difficulties  in  connection  with  agricultural  and  in- 
dustrial arts  schools  are  much  greater,  except  where  college  courses 
are  given  in  Chinese.  On  account  of  the  large  amount  of  time 
given  to  technical  instruction  it  is  doubtful  whether  these  schools 
can  prepare  students  to  take  college  work  in  English.  Even  the 
normal  graduates  from  such  schools  may  find  it  impossible  to  take 
college  work  in  English.  It  will  be  necessary  for  the  colleges  to 
offer  a  prepaiatory  year  for  the  students  from  these  schools. 

The  colleges  should  have  a  plan  which  will  enable  grad- 
uates from  commercial-normal  schools  to  enter  college  on  a  par 
with  college  preparatory  graduates,  and  for  agricultural  and  in- 
dustrial arts  school  graduates  to  do  likewise  after  a  preparatory 
year  in  English. 

VI.    Middle  Schools  for  Girls 

ly^.  The  great  majority  of  girls  go  from  the  middle  schools 
directly  into  home-making,  teaching,  or  some  form  of  social  and 
religious  service.  An  increasing  number  are,  however,  going  on 
to  further  study  in  college,  normal  school,  medical  school,  nurses' 
training  school,  Bible  training  school,  or  training  school  for  physi- 
cal directors.  A  few  enter  the  business  world  as  clerks,  or  sten- 
ographers, or  in  similar  positions. 

175.  Almost  all  Chinese  girls  become  home-makers,  either 
immediately  after  leaving  school  or  a  few  years  later.   Every  school 


SECONDARY  EDUCATION  97 

for  girls  ought,  therefore,  to  aim  to  prepare  its  students  to  be 
good  wives  and  mothers,  and  to  make  happy  homes.  Domestic 
science  and  household  economics  are  subjects  of  fundamental 
importance.  The  study  of  food  values,  of  balanced  diets,  the  care 
and  discipline  of  children,  first  aid,  hygiene,  sanitation,  and  the 
treatment  of  illnesses  should,  in  our  judgment,  be  included  in  the 
curricula  of  all  middle  schools  for  girls.  Intelligence  along  these 
lines  is  of  even  greater  importance  in  China  than  in  countries 
where  there  is  far  more  general  knowledge  of  such  matters.  A 
simple  model  home  in  which  a  few  girls  live  for  a  time,  assuming 
full  responsibility  for  everything  in  connection  with  it,  is  a  valu- 
able addition  to  the  class-room  study  of  home-making  subjects. 
The  partial  responsibility  of  the  older  girls  for  little  girls  has,  in 
some  schools,  proved  to  be  a  useful  training  in  the  care  of  chil- 
dren. Observation  of  kindergarten  work  has  also  proved  valuable 
in  demonstrating  methods  of  teaching  and  dealing  with  little 
children. 

We  recommend  that  all  middle  schools  for  girls  include 
courses  in  domestic  science  and  household  economics,  and  that 
some  schools  specialize  along  these  lines. 

176.  A  large  number  of  the  graduates  of  middle  schools  for 
girls  will  teach  in  the  interim  between  graduation  and  marriage, 
and  a  g.  owing  number  are  continuing  to  teach  after  marriage.  One 
of  the  most  urgent  needs  in  China  to-day  is  for  well  trained 
teachers  for  elementary  schools.  Christian,  government,  and  pri- 
vate. Graduates  of  middle  schools,  who  have  received  some  nor- 
mal training,  have  done  excellent  work  in  elementary  schools. 
Christian  middle  schools  for  girls  can  render  service  of  immeas- 
urable value,  by  furnishing  elementary  schools,  Christian  and  non- 
Christian,  with  teachers  of  thorough  training  and  strong  Christian 
character. 

Girls  may  be  trained  to  teach  in  elementary  schools,  either 
in  union  normal  schools,  or  in  normal  courses  in  middle  schools. 
See  the  Chapters  on  Education  of  Teachers  (Section  22$xi)  and 
Education  of  Women  (Sections  419^). 

In  view  of  the  great  need  of  women  teachers  in  elemen- 


98  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

tary  schools,  the  large  proportion  of  middle  school  graduates 
who  will  enter  the  teaching  profession,  and  the  fact  that  all  mothers 
need  at  least  some  knowledge  of  teaching  methods,  all  middle 
schools  for  girls  should  probably  include  courses  on  education, 
and  should  provide  for  practice  teaching  under  supervision.  It 
is  our  judgment,  however,  that  there  should  be,  in  every  center,  one 
strong  normal  school  for  girls.  In  most  cases  this  should  prob- 
ably be  a  union  school,  all  the  missions  concerned  uniting  to  make 
it  a  thoroughly  strong  institution.  There  may,  however,  be  some 
situations  in  which  it  may  be  wise  to  assign  to  the  schools  of  one 
mission  the  responsibility  of  doing  this  work  for  all. 

177.  Every  middle  school  for  girls  should  offer  courses  which 
will  prepare  its  students  to  be  good  citizens  and  to  render  useful 
service  in  their  communities.  Such  courses  should  not  only  hold 
up  high  ideals,  but  should  also  be  very  definite  and  practical  in 
the  teaching  concerning  needs  and  the  methods  of  meeting  them. 
Actual  service  for  the  people  of  the  neighborhood  should  also  be 
a  part  of  school  life. 

All  Christian  schools  for  girls  are  giving  courses  in  religious 
education.  No  part  of  the  curriculum  should  be  more  carefully 
planned,  and  no  subject  demands  stronger  teaching.  See  the  Chap- 
ter on  Religious  Education  (Sections  4591?).  These  subjects  are, 
and  should  be,  a  part  of  every  student's  work,  and  special 
provision  should  be  made  for  the  training  of  those  girls  who 
plan  to  go  into  some  form  of  religious  service  upon  leaving  the 
middle  school.  This  may  sometimes  be  done  most  effectively  in 
a  separate  school,  similar  to  the  school  for  the  training  of  teachers. 

178.  Inasmuch  as  the  number  of  girls  who  go  from  middle 
school  to  college  is  comparatively  small,  in  proportion  to  those 
who  immediately  enter  the  home  or  the  school  room,  the  prepara- 
tion of  students  for  college  should  not  be  the  determining  factor 
in  the  planning  of  middle  school  curricula.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  number  of  girls  who  desire  to  go  on  to  college  is  steadily  in- 
creasing, and  it  is  important  that  they  be  thoroughly  prepared. 
In  a  center  where  there  are  several  middle  schools  for  girls  it 
might  be  well  for  the  missions  supporting  them  to  consider  devel- 


SECONDARY  EDUCATION  99 

oping  each  along  a  different  line,  one  school  preparing  girls  for 
college,  another  for  teaching,  another  emphasizing  domestic  science, 
a  fourth,  perhaps,  specializing  on  preparation  for  social  and  reli- 
gious service.  In  some  centers,  it  may  be  wise  to  consider  the 
uniting  of  all  girls'  middle  schools  into  one  school,  thus  securing 
an  institution  large  enough  and  strong  enough  to  offer  several 
elective  courses  within  itself. 

Whatever  specific  plan  may  be  followed,  we  recommend  the 
closest  possible  coordination  between  the  Christian  girls'  middle 
schools  of  each  center,  to  the  end  that  waste  and  duplication  may 
be  avoided,  and  the  varying  needs  of  Chinese  girls  met  as  ade- 
quately and  completely  as  possible.  The  needs  and  opportunities 
of  to-day  demand  specialization,  thoroughness,  and  a  high  degree 
of  effectiveness.  These  cannot  be  secured  if  four  or  five  schools 
with  only  moderately  adequate  equipment  and  staff,  are  all  trying 
to  meet  all  the  needs  of  Chinese  girls.  The  uniting  of  forces,  or 
the  division  of  responsibility,  will  on  the  other  hand  make  possible 
the  meeting  of  a  greater  number  of  needs,  in  a  far  more  effective 
way. 

VII.    The  Improvement  of  the  Christian  Middle  Schools 

179.  For  each  individual  church  or  mission  to  have  its  own 
middle  school  may  be  a  good  policy  from  its  point  of  view,  but 
this  plan  makes  difficulties  for  the  smaller  missions  and  churches. 
Moreover  it  is  not  desirable  to  attempt  to  develop  as  many  middle 
schools  in  a  given  area  as  this  would  sometimes  mean.  When  the 
development  of  a  middle  school,  by  a  denomination,  would  result 
in  wasteful  duplication,  or  in  competition  for  students,  such  a 
plan  would  clearly  be  a  mistake.  The  wisest  policy  would  be  to 
share  in  some  existing  or  proposed  union  school.  It  is  the  opin- 
ion of  the  Commission  that  middle  schools  have  grown  up  in  many 
places  where  the  strengthening  of  an  existing  nearby  school  of 
another  mission,  would  have  been  far  better  for  the  Christian 
cause,  and  that  in  other  centers  where  strong  middle  schools 
would  have  a  great  opportunity,  depleted  resources  have  left 
schools  weak  and  far  too  few.     In  general  there  has  been  little 


100  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

coordinating  and  uniting  of  forces.  The  problem  in  each  area 
should  be  dealt  with  thoroughly  and  from  a  broadly  Christian 
and  economical  standpoint,  with  full  regard  for  the  best  interests 
of  the  smaller  denominations  as  well  as  for  the  p.obable  resources 
and  opportunities  of  all.  A  mission  should  be  slow  to  declare 
its  school  a  middle  school  unless  its  future  as  such  is  sure,  its 
constituency  large,  and  its  place  in  the  Christian  school  system 
not  in  the  least  a  competitive  one.  The  success  of  a  school  is  not 
to  be  judged  by  the  step  in  the  ladder  to  which  it  can  manage  to 
drag  a  few  pupils,  but  by  the  number  and  preparation  of  the  stu- 
dents it  turns  out  at  whatever  stage  it  finds  it  ought  to  release 
them  and  admit  more  in  their  places  lower  down. 

1 80.  A  school  is  unwise  to  continue  carrying  small  classes 
rather  than  to  send  them  on  to  another  school,  or  out  into  life. 
When  a  class  dwindles  to  less  than  fifteen  pupils  it  is  probably 
time  to  discontinue  this  grade,  and  bestow  the  energy  thus  re- 
leased upon  a  larger  class  of  pupils  of  lower  grade.  The  nearest 
good  stopping  place  above  or  below,  should  be  chosen  as  the  ob- 
jective of  the  school,  and  occupational  training  put  into  the  last 
year  or  two  of  the  course  thus  fixed,  unless  the  school  feeds 
directly  into  some  other  vocational  school  with  small  loss  of  pupils. 
This  presents  a  difficult  problem  to  the  struggling  country  board- 
ing school  with  few  or  no  senior  middle  school  students.  Its  type 
and  future  should  be  decided  primarily  in  the  interests  of  its 
constituency,  the  development  of  the  church,  and  the  general  in- 
terests of  the  whole  community. 

Most  higher  primary  schools,  now  giving  no  occupa- 
tional work  and  little  general  preparation  for  life,  and  many 
struggling  middle  schools  of  similar  character,  should  become 
clean-cut,  effective,  and  well-taught  junior  middle  schools  with 
genuine  training  for  life,  several  of  which  should  feed  into  some 
one  large  senior  middle  school.  Full-fledged  middle  schools  and 
also  some,  now  called  colleges,  should  become  senior  middle  schools 
of  one  of  the  definite  types  described  above,  in  most  cases  having 
junior  middle  schools  attached. 

181.  The  question  of  the  size  of  schools  has  been  frequently 


SECONDARY  EDUCATIOK  loi 

raised.  This  is  entirely  a  question  of  administration  and  finance. 
It  is  possible  for  one  principal  so  to  organize  his  well  selected  and 
trained  staflf  as  to  bring  a  thousand  students  into  contact  with 
the  best  personalities,  but  it  is  doubtful  if  such  a  principal  or  staff 
is  often  found.  A  school  of  over  two  hundred  requires  one  or 
more  asssistant  principals  or  proctors  in  addition  to  an  office  sec- 
retary. Efficiency  requires  the  addition  of  needed  assistants  at  the 
right  points  and  the  bringing  of  the  student  body  up  to  as  near 
capacity  as  possible  at  each  stage. 

Economy  in  finance  would  also  call  for  larger  classes. 
Twenty-five  or  thirty  is  not  too  large  for  effective  teaching.  It  is 
expensive  to  offer  two  or  three  types  of  work  when  classes  would 
thus  be  split  up  into  small  ones.  The  smaller  the  school  the  more 
concentration  is  demanded. 

182.  If  schools  are  to  change  from  the  old  plan  of  seven 
years  elementary  (lower  primary  four  and  higher  primary  three) 
and  four  years  middle  school,  to  the  new  plan  of  six  years  ele- 
mentary and  three  years  each  of  junior  and  of  senior  middle 
school,  in  Christian  schools : 

a.  The  additional  year  should  be  given  to  securing  better 
work  in  the  lower  grades  rather  than  added  to  the  present  gradua- 
ti6n  standards,  or  at  least  such  a  policy  should  be  followed  in  so  far 
as  government  school  standards  permit. 

b.  Opportunity  should  thus  be  taken  to  make  arithmetic 
more  thorough  and  effective,  greatly  to  increase  physical  and 
health  education,  to  reduce  class-room  work,  to  give  another  year 
of  Chinese  reading  and  composition,  history,  civics,  geography, 
practical  arts,  manual  work,  and  general  science. 

c.  It  would  seem  best  to  begin  the  study  of  English  with 
the  first  year  of  the  junior  middle  school,  but  in  this  particular, 
and  in  all  subjects,  the  government  curriculum  should  be  fol- 
lowed. 

VIII.    Middle  School  Objectives  and  Curricula 

183.  The  first  aim  of  Christian  education  is  to  develop  char- 
acter.    This  means  three  things :   first,   sincerity,  truth-seeking. 


102  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

honesty  of  thought  and  action;  second,  sympathy,  love,  and  a 
spirit  of  service;  third,  the  habit  of  right  endeavor,  the  will  to 
proceed  strenuously,  the  mental  energy  that  nerves  one  to  do  his 
best,  and  faith  to  attempt  to  do  God's  will  in  the  world. 

This  requires  first  of  all  a  wholesome  school  life,  a 
Christian  atmosphere,  genuine  work,  justice,  law  and  order,  and 
much  contact  with  people  of  Christ-like  spirit.  It  requires  also 
definite  instruction  in  ethics  and  religion,  and  in  how  to  apply 
this  teaching  in  life. 

An  adequate  and  strong  staff  is  therefore  essential.  This 
is  of  special  importance  for  students  of  middle  school  age.  Middle 
school  staffs  must  be  strengthened,  in  order  that  there  may  be 
more  teachers  of  strong  personality  and  fine  Christian  spirit  to 
live  close  to  the  students,  to  talk  and  eat  and  play  with  them,  to  work 
with  them  as  well  as  for  them,  and  to  join  with  them  in  their 
school  activities  and  social  service. 

Advantage  must  also  be  taken  of  the  special  opportuni- 
ties that  good  teachers  have  to  give  training  in  honesty,  serious- 
ness of  purpose,  ethical  judgment  and  attitude,  and  the  spirit  of 
patriotic  and  social  service  which  arises  in  connection  with,  and' 
largely  gives  justification  for,  such  class-room  subjects  as  science, 
manual  training,  history,  civics,  geography,  education,  and  religion. 

It  is  extremely  important  that  there  be  an  adequate  num- 
ber of  teachers,  especially  Chinese  teachers,  of  the  best  possible 
training  and  ability,  to  specialize  on  the  religious  training  of  stu- 
dents and  to  teach  the  subjects  named  above.  Teachers  should  not 
be  so  overburdened  with  class-room  or  other  work  as  to  prevent 
their  giving  adequate  time  and  strength  to  helpful  personal  con- 
tacts with  students.  A  Christian  school  which  fails  to  exert  a 
strong  and  effective  Christian  influence  upon  its  students  has  no 
sufficient  reason  for  existence.  Too  many  schools  have  failed  at 
precisely  this  point. 

The  amount  of  time  which  should  be  given  to  class-room 
instruction  in  religion  is  less  important  than  the  extent  to  which 
the  students  catch  the  Christian  spirit,  the  loyalty  with  which  they 
stand  for  their  convictions  in  the  world,  and  the  generosity  with 


SECONDARY  EDUCATION  103 

which  they  spend  their  strength  in  Christian  service  for  their 
people  after  they  leave  school.  Such  problems  as  the  desirability 
of  daily  Bible  study,  required  chapel  attendance,  the  urging  of 
students  to  unite  with  the  church,  should  be  made  the  subject  of 
frequent  and  thorough  discussion  in  meetings  of  teachers  and 
principals. 

184.  An  important  aim  of  education  is  the  acquiring  of  good 
health  and  the  knowledge  and  habits  that  promote  it.  ( See  Chap- 
ter on  Physical  Education,  Sections  51  iff.)  Only  the  development 
of  character  is  more  important. 

A  physical  director  should  be  included  in  the  staff  of 
every  middle  school,  whether  for  boys  or  girls.  We  believe  this  to 
be  absolutely  necessary.  The  physical  director  has  an  influence 
on  the  life  of  the  student,  almost  invariably  strong,  and  high  char- 
acter is,  therefore,  as  important  as  good  training.  It  is  de- 
sirable, also,  that  as  many  of  the  other  teachers  as  possible  be 
able  to  share  in  the  physical  education  and  recreation  of  the 
students. 

Classroom  instruction  should  include  practical  hygiene 
and  some  physiology.  It  should  also  include  some  knowledge  of 
the  diseases  common  to  the  Orient,  home  remedies,  first  aid  or 
home  surgery ;  of  care  of  children,  sex  hygiene,  narcotics,  poisons 
and  stimulants;  of  foods  and  cooking,  clothing  and  personal  hy- 
giene; of  boards  of  health,  home  and  city  sanitation,  and,  it 
may  be  added,  of  the  importance  and  nobility  of  the  medical 
profession. 

This  instruction  is  all  so  important  that  it  should  be  put 
early  in  the  program  of  studies,  in  order  that  all  may  receive  it, 
and  an)^  who  have  missed  it  should  be  required  to  make  it  up.  It 
is  probable  that  an  equivalent  of  one  hundred  and  twenty  periods 
is  about  the  amount  which  should  be  given  to  such  instruction  in 
junior  or  senior  middle  schools. 

185.  A  third  objective  of  education  is  the  giving  of  the  gen- 
eral information  and  mental  training  most  likely  to  be  of  value 
in  several  lines  of  activity.  This  should  take  precedence  over  the 
specialized  training  to  be  described  later.     This  general  training 


104  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

includes  language  (oral,  written,  and  printed),  elementary  mathe- 
matics, general  information,  knowledge  of  people  and  affairs. 

This  means,  first  of  all,  a  good  command  of  Chinese ; 
ability  to  speak  well  in  the  native  dialect  and  also  in  Mandarin ; 
ability  to  read  newspapers,  letters,  and  common  documents;  abil- 
ity to  write  letters,  bills,  receipts,  deeds,  reports,  descriptions, 
directions,  straightforward  narratives,  and  ordinary  notices  and 
advertisements  in  both  modern  Wenli  and  in  Mandarin.  Good 
handwriting  is  also  important.  If  this  requires  more  than  a  period 
a  day  throughout  the  middle  school,  it  should  be  given,  probably 
double  quantity  at  first  and  less  later  on.  The  best  teachers  avail- 
able should  be  secured. 

The  work  in  mathematics  should  give,  in  addition  to  a 
ready  use  of  the  abacus,  an  ability  to  handle  the  common  mathe- 
matical problems  of  life,  such  as  money  changing,  making  up  and 
settling  bills,  interest  and  discount,  exchange,  measuring  and 
weighing,  simple  algebraic  processes,  and  a  knowledge  of  construct- 
ive geometry  useful  in  drawing.  This  ought  not  to  require  more 
than  a  period  a  day  for  two  years,  beyond  the  mastery  of  common 
fractions,  decimals  and  percentage. 

General  intelligence  and  a  knowledge  of  people  and 
afifairs  are,  of  course,  to  be  secured,  partly  from  incidental  sources. 
If  however,  three-fourths  of  a  pupil's  life  from  the  first  year  of  the 
junior  middle  school  on  is  spent  in  a  boarding  school,  the  school 
must  provide  most  of  the  education  along  these  lines,  even  that 
which  comes  incidentally.  This  will  be  discussed  later.  Most  of 
a  student's  fund  of  information  is,  however,  to  be  obtained  from 
a  study  of  the  subjects  named  below. 

The  geography  and  history  of  China  are  of  primary  im- 
portance. This  should  include  a  knowledge  and  appreciation  of, 
and  real  interest  in,  China's  early  and  present  conditions ;  its  peo- 
ple, their  origin  and  distinguishing  characteristics,  its  products, 
its  business  and  commerce,  its  government  and  customs,  its 
possibilities  and  problems.  This  will  require  approximately 
four  periods  a  week  throughout  junior  and  senior  middle 
school.     Another  branch  of  general  information  needed   by  the 


SECONDARY  EDUCATION  105 

average  man  or  woman  has  to  do  with  such  matters  as  food, 
clothing,  shelter,  plants,  animals,  materials,  metals,  tools,  appli- 
ances, physical  and  chemical  principles,  machinery,  transportation, 
and  weather.  These  may  be  organized  under  the  heading  "gen- 
eral science"  and  should  be  given  approximately  one  period  a  day 
through  the  junior  middle  school,  and  one  year  of  the  senior 
middle  school.  The  amount  of  time  given  this  subject  will  vary 
according  to  the  previous  training  of  the  pupils,  their  environ- 
ment, and  the  amount  of  handwork  taught. 

A  knowledge  of  the  social,  governmental  and  economic 
order  in  which  our  lives  are  cast  is  also  essential.  This  is  not 
adequately  secured  by  incidental  methods.  It  should  form  part  of 
a  course  in  civics  or  else  be  given  by  special  instruction  in  con- 
nection with  ethics,  or  geography  and  history. 

The  incidental  education  which  the  student  secures  out- 
side of  school  may  be  very  meagre.  The  school  should  therefore 
provide  as  many  and  as  varied  opportunities  as  possible,  for  the 
securing  of  such  education.  School  gardens,  pets,  books,  music, 
entertainments,  social  hours,  athletics,  recreation,  and  the  oppor- 
tunity to  study  the  life  about  them  by  trips  to  industrial  plants, 
philanthropic  and  educational  institutions,  and  other  points  of 
interest,  are  all  valuable  means  to  this  end. 

186.  A  fourth  objective  of  education  is  the  giving  of  occupa- 
tional training.  This  falls  under  several  heads.  The  following 
list  will  serve  merely  to  indicate  the  nature  of  some  of  them : 

a.  Commercial  Courses 

b.  Clerical  Courses. 

c.  Industrial  Arts  Courses.  * 

d.  Normal  Courses. 

e.  Agricultural  Courses  (Sections  360-362). 

f.  Home  Economics  and  Practical  Arts  Courses. 

187.  Another  important  function  of  education  is  the  training 
of  boys  and  girls  to  be  members  of  a  home.  Most  of  the  training 
outlined  under  character  training,  physical  education,  and  general 
education  for  life,  contributes  to  this  end,  but  there  is  also  need 
of  special  training. 


io6  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

i88.  The  sixth  aim  of  education,  the  production  of  good  citi- 
zens, will  also  be  in  some  measure  met  by  the  subjects  given  above, 
especially  those  related  to  character  formation,  but  definite  instruc- 
tion is  also  needed.  A  sense  of  membership  in  a  community 
carrying  real  responsibilities  with  it,  should  be  developed  in  every 
student.  Instruction  is  needed  in  such  subjects  as  democratic 
forms  of  government,  civic  associations,  boards  of  health,  public 
education,  the  sacredness  of  public  property,  and  respect  for  law. 
The  course  in  civics  is  particularly  intended  to  give  such  instruc- 
tion, and  other  features  of  school  life  and  training  should  be 
included. 

189.  Important,  but  not  to  be  given  at  the  sacrifice  of  the 
objectives  named  above,  is  trainmg  for  the  use  of  leisure  time 
and  the  enjoyment  of  life  in  general.  This  is  often  neglected. 
Yet  a  better  appreciation  of  the  real  satisfactions  that  are  to  be 
had  as  our  lives  develop  into  ever  higher  and  broader  spheres, 
would  make  all  of  life  more  useful  and  effective. 

Students  should  learn  a  greater  measure  of  appreciation 
of  the  social  side  of  vocations,  of  the  dignity  of  labor,  of  the  value 
of  the  individual,  of  the  wonder  of  life,  of  the  glories  of  nature, 
of  the  usefulness  of  recreation  and  travel,  of  the  greatness  of  the 
universe,  of  the  marvels  of  science,  of  the  power  and  use  of  man's 
mind,  of  the  beauty  of  human  friendship,  music,  art,  literature. 
Subjects  which  will  increase  appreciation  of  the  value  of  all  these 
things  should  be  included  in  the  program  of  studies,  and 
school  life  should  be  so  organized  as  to  contribute  to  this  end. 
Among  the  subjects  which  may  be  so  taught  as  to  achieve  this 
result  are  Chinese  and  English  literature,  and  the  social 
sciences. 

190.  To  attain  the  objectives  outlined  above,  and  to  keep  the 
right  emphases  and  proportions,  calls  for  a  most  careful  re- 
study  of  the  curriculum  of  the  middle  school.  Experimentation 
and  conference  on  the  part  of  those  in  charge  of  middle  schools 
is  of  supreme  importance.  It  will  take  time  and  thought,  and  the 
careful  balancing  of  values,  to  determine  the  curriculum  which 
will  best  meet  the  multiple  needs  of  the  boys  and  girls  in  Christian 


SFXONDARY  EDUCATION  107 

middle  schools  in  China  to-day,  but  it  is  probably  safe  to  say,  that 
no  problem  of  Christian  education  is  more  urgent  than  this. 

In  the  meantime,  much  can  be  done  by  individual  schools. 
Comparatively  slight  rearrangement  of  subjects,  changed  emphases, 
and  a  new  content  put  into  subjects  already  taught,  will  do  much 
to  make  the  work  of  many  schools  more  effective. 

191.  The  curriculum  regulations  of  the  government  are  now 
in  process  of  reconstruction.  When  they  are  settled,  it  will  prob- 
ably be  wise  for  the  Christian  schools  to  follow  these  regulations 
as  closely  as  is  possible  without  sacrificing  the  achievem.ent  of 
their  own  fundamental  aims  and  purposes. 

192.  Much  excellent  literature  on  the  modern  problem  study, 
and  project  methods,  has  become  available  in  recent  years.  These 
indicate  the  principles  to  be  followed  in  the  organization  of  sub- 
ject matter,  and  will  give  much  help  in  the  reconstruction  of 
subjects  of  study. 

193.  The  establishment  of  standards  and  the  cooperation  of 
middle  schools  in  many  matters  are  highly  important.  It  is  recom- 
mended that  the  China  Christian  Educational  Association  give  spe- 
cial attention  to  the  organization  of  a  department  which  shall 
undertake  a  nation-wide  standardization  and  improvement  of  Chris- 
tian middle  schools.  The  aim  should  be  not  to  make  all  schoolr 
alike,  but  to  bring  all  to  a  common  high  standard  of  effectiveness. 

IX.    Summary  of  Recommendations 

(i).  There  should  be  an  immediate  and  strong  development 
of  the  middle  school  as  the  center  of  the  educational  system. 

(2).  This  grade  of  education  should  not  only  be  related  to  life 
in  general,  but  each  course  should  also  be  occupational  in  character 
and,  at  the  same  time,  prepare  students  for  higher  education. 

(3).  Teacher-training  is  the  most  essential  type  of  occupa- 
tional training  for  the  Christian  system. 

(4).  The  commercial-normal  middle  school  will  meet  the 
needs  of  the  largest  number  of  the  boys  of  large  towns  and  cities. 

(5).  The  agricultural-industrial-normal  school  for  the  coun- 


I08  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

try  and  the  industrial-normal  school  for  the  city  should  be  de- 
veloped wherever  possible. 

(6).  More  emphasis  should  be  given  to  home-life  training 
and  normal  training  in  girls'  schools. 

(7).  The  concentration  of  middle  school  efifort  into  larger 
and  stronger  schools  is  urged. 

(8).  The  curriculum  should  be  constructed  on  modern  lines 
for  the  achievement  of  the  definite  objectives  outlined  in  this 
chapter. 

(9).  Cooperative  organization  for  the  standardization  and 
improvement  of  middle  schools,  and  their  relation  to  each  other 
is  urgently  required. 


CHAPTER  III 

COLLEGIATE  EDUCATION 

I.    The  Genesis  of  the  Christian  College 

194.  Some  of  the  Christian  colleges  were  established  pri- 
marily with  the  thought  of  training  ministers  and  other  Christian 
leaders.  In  other  instances  the  controlling  idea  may  have  been 
the  crowning  of  a  denominational  system  of  schools,  and  the 
desire  to  provide  higher  education  for  the  sons  and  daughters  of 
Christian  parents.  Others  again  came  into  being  out  of  a  more 
general  aim  to  enlarge  the  sphere  of  Christian  influence,  to  inter- 
pret, through  this  method,  the  meaning  of  the  Christian  message 
for  the  Chinese  people,  and  by  furnishing  young  men  and  women 
equipped  with  modern  knowledge  and  imbued  with  Christian  ideals, 
to  contribute  toward  the  progress  and  prosperity  of  the  Chinese 
people.  All  have  sought  to  lead  their  students  to  the  acceptance  of 
Jesus  Christ  as  Master  and  Saviour.  On  the  whole,  the  colleges 
have  been  able  to  achieve  a  large  measure  of  success  in  these 
various  aims.  They  have  been  the  pioneers  of  modern  collegiate 
education  in  China,  and  have  supplied  many  of  her  most  valuable 
leaders  in  government,  industry,  education  and  religion. 

195.  Their  very  conception  was  in  more  than  one  case  a 
daring  adventure  of  faith  and  a  significant  instance  of  Christian 
idealism  and  international  good  will.  A  college  undertaking  forty- 
three  years  ago  to  share  with  Chinese  boys  the  best  that  America 
had  to  give  in  knowledge,  and  located  in  so  strategic  a  place  as 
Shanghai ;  a  university  founded  in  a  far-away  center,  a  month's 
hard   travel    from    Shanghai,    uniting   all   the    Christian    forces, 

109 


no  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

national,  sectarian,  educational,  in  West  China;  a  great  western 
university  reproducing  its  best  life  in  an  inland  and  one-time 
strongly  anti-foreign  but  richly  cultured  province ;  such  achieve- 
ments reveal  a  vision  and  a  moral  energy  which  are  an  earnest 
of  the  potentialities  in  the  whole  system  of  Christian  education 
in  China, 

II.    Recent  Developments 

196.  The  mission  college  quite  naturally  modelled  its  curri- 
culum and  activities  upon  the  traditional  western  type.  There 
were  no  Chinese  standards;  the  immediate  objectives  were  too 
insistent  to  permit  of  much  experimentation ;  resources  were  lim- 
ited; the  majority  of  the  men  called  upon  to  organise,  administer 
or  teach  in  them  had  not  come  to  China  to  do  educational  work, 
and  had  had  little  or  no  technical  training;  policies  had  become 
conventionalized.  Each  had  grown  up  out  of  a  denominational  or 
sectional  need,  and  was  intended  to  serve  its  own  mission  or  local 
constituency,  with  little,  if  any,  thought  of  a  comprehensive  pro- 
gram for  all  China  or  of  the  exacting  demands  that  would  arise 
in  the  future.  Since  then  changes  have  come  which  have  materially 
affected  the  situation: 

a.  The  fading  of  western  denominational  interests  and 
the  tendency  toward  a  united  Chinese  church,  with  the  result  that 
separate  colleges  exist  largely  because  of  administrative  conve- 
nience rather  than  living,  distinctive  principles. 

b.  The  increasing  ease  and  rapidity  of  communication, 
with  the  result  that  colleges  are  now  as  many  hours  apart  as  they 
were  days,  and  students  have  ceased  to  consider  distance  from  home 
or  provincial  lines  in  deciding  what  college  to  attend. 

c.  The  growing  interest  in  vocational  education,  which 
has  forced  the  colleges  to  introduce  occupational  courses,  involving 
a  constantly  augmenting  financial  burden,  needless  reduplication, 
opportunist  or  fortuitous  departures,  and  undesirable  competition. 

d.  The  founding  of  broadly  conceived  government  and 
private  universities  with  relatively  large  potential  resources.  Under 
the  leadership  of  able  and  public-spirited  Chinese,  usually  with 


COLLEGIATE  EDUCATION  iii 

better  and  more  modern  technical  training  in  western  education 
than  missionary  administrators,  with  larger  freedom,  with  the 
appeal  they  can  make  to  the  commendable  national  pride  of  stu- 
dents and  supporters,  these  universities  have  introduced  a  standard 
of  comparison  which  must  be  more  seriously  reckoned  with  in  the 
future,  though  it  is  already  more  important  than  is  generally 
recognized.  Christian  educators  ought  to  rejoice  in  the  evidence 
thus  furnished  of  China's  ability  and  intention  to  develop  a  system 
of  government  and  private  education  in  line  with  the  finest  modern 
tendencies.  In  so  far  as  our  institutions  have  aided  or  may  here- 
after aid  in  the  rise  and  efficient  management  of  such  colleges, 
the  purpose  for  which  ours  exist  is  being  realized.  But,  if  mission 
colleges  are  to  maintain  a  sufficient  and  harmonious  place  in 
Chinese  Hfe,  there  must  be  some  radical  adjustments. 

197.  There  are  at  present  sixteen  institutions  maintained 
by  missionary  societies,  claiming  to  do  work  of  full  college  grade. 
The  enrollment  of  these  institutions  in  college  classes  varies  from 
less  than  twelve  to  about  three  hundred.  Two  of  these  are  exclu- 
sively for  women,  while  several  others  admit  women,  or  include  a 
college  for  women.  This  number  is  not  large  in  proportion  to  the 
whole  population  of  China.  But  in  view  of  the  total  available 
resources  the  maintenance  of  all  these  schools  with  their  present 
variety  of  courses  and  consequent  duplication  of  elTort,  for  a 
limited  number  of  students,  is  unjustifiable  economically.  Some  of 
those  schools  should  be  closed  or  their  character  changed. 

198.  The  government,  with  its  greater  resources  and  re- 
sponsibilities, contemplates  only  four  universities,  and  it  is  inter- 
esting to  note  that  one  powerful  church,  which  has  done  careful 
thinking  on  an  all-China  educational  policy,  has  limited  itself  to 
cooperation  in  four  union  universities,  realizing  the  futility  of 
attempting  the  task  on  any  other  basis.  The  China  Medical  Board 
of  the  Rockefeller  Foundation,  after  determining  to  establish  two 
medical  schools  in  China,  limited  itself  to  one,  on  the  ground  that 
it  could  not  afford  the  cost  of  two.  A  report  issued  by  the 
American  Association  of  Colleges  arrives  at  the  conclusion  that 
maximum  efficiency  in  proportion  to  cost  is  reached  with  an  enroll- 


112  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

ment  of  about  five  hundred  students.  It  is  frequently  argued  that 
the  personal  relations,  the  moral  atmosphere  and  religious  influ- 
ences are  more  potent  in  the  small  college.  But,  in  the  modern 
sense,  our  largest  mission  universities  have  very  small  enroll- 
ments, and  personal  contact  between  teachers  and  students  is 
after  all  not  so  much  a  question  of  size  as  of  organization.  No 
unprejudiced  person  will  challenge  the  statement  that  the  total 
amount  of  money  and  man-power  poured  annually  with  such  splen- 
did intent  into  Christian  higher  education  in  China  could  be  redis- 
tributed to  the  immensely  greater  effectiveness  of  the  Christian 
movement,  and  with  greater  benefit  to  the  Chinese  people. 

199.  One  of  the  commonest  criticisms  made  by  graduates  of 
mission  colleges,  and  other  Chinese  observers,  is  that  they  do  not 
fit  students  for  life.  Because  of  economic  pressure  and  the  social 
structure  of  China  almost  every  student  attends  college  primarily 
from  a  desire  to  increase  his  earning  capacity.  His  education 
usually  is  an  investment  by  the  family  for  their  common  welfare. 
The  effort  to  produce  church  workers,  the  lack  of  original  think- 
ing, the  relative  ease  of  securing  students,  an  inadequate  appreci- 
ation of  the  social  function  of  Christian  missions,  are  among  the 
causes  which  have  prevented  greater  attention  to  the  occupational 
aspect  of  education.  Even  where  the  majority  of  the  students  were 
known  to  be  headed  for  teaching,  they  have  been,  as  a  rule,  given 
only  the  content  of  subjects  without  sufficient  attention  to  teaching 
method.  The  opportunity  to  learn  English  has  been  indeed  a  great 
attraction  to  the  student  from  a  purely  occupational  and  utilitarian 
point  of  view.  So  much  has  this  been  the  case,  that  the  courses 
offered  for  their  value  in  giving  a  liberal  culture  were  regarded  as 
and  became  little  more  than  opportunities  for  practice  in  English, 
the  acquirement  of  which  brought  prompt  remuneration  and  easy 
promotion  in  business  careers.  Even  this  concession  to  the  legiti- 
mate occupational  ambition  of  the  students  has  in  many  cases  only 
prepared  them  for  clerical  positions  of  minor  influence,  either  from 
the  point  of  view  of  the  creation  of  a  strong  Christian  community 
or  the  welfare  of  the  nation.  But  the  attempt  to  introduce  techni- 
cal courses  on  the  present  unrelated  basis  means  increasing  cost 


COLLEGIATE  EDUCATION  113 

and  competition.  Every  new  feature,  however  alluring  and  inex- 
pensive or  even  profitable  it  may  have  seemed  at  first,  is  in  danger 
of  involving  larger  and  larger  operating  expense  for  the  originating 
college,  and  probably  an  attempt  on  the  part  of  others  to  keep  up 
with  the  pace. 

200.  These  institutions  were  from  the  nature  of  the  case 
begun  by  western  missionaries,  supported  by  western  gifts,  pro- 
tected by  treaties  with  western  powers,  permitted  for  the  same 
reason  to  make  any  pretensions  or  maintain  any  standards  which 
those  in  charge  of  them  happened  to  prefer,  and  chartered  often 
under  western  legal  requirements.  Whatever  may  have  been  true 
in  the  past,  it  is  these  aspects  rather  than  their  distinctively  religious 
characteristics  which  are  preventing  their  receiving  heartier  wel- 
come and  recognition  and  larger  Chinese  support.  One  of  their 
most  serious  defects  is  in  the  small  number  of  Chinese  on  the 
staff  who  are  qualified  to  be  in  any  real  sense  the  colleagues  of  the 
foreign  teachers  or  to  hold  positions  of  administrative  responsibility. 
Although  it  may  be  said  that  there  are  not  as  yet  many  Chinese 
of  this  type  available,  yet  this  cannot  be  the  only  explanation.  The 
reasons  usually  given  by  Chinese  for  this  state  of  things  are :  the 
desire  of  missionaries  to  keep  control  of  policy ;  too  little  freedom 
or  leisure  for  growth ;  inadequate  salaries ;  the  limited  scope  for 
useful  service  in  the  relatively  petty  program  of  the  mission  col- 
lege. Other  factors  that  enter  in  are :  the  fact  that  it  is  always 
easier  to  get  a  new  appointee  from  the  home  board  than  funds  for 
paying  high-salaried  Chinese ;  unhappy  experiences  with  Chinese 
who  have  been  tried  out  and  have  brought  disappointment;  their 
unwillingness  to  endure  the  contumely  of  their  friends  and  the 
necessary  restrictions  of  such  service;  lingering,  if  unconscious, 
racial  predilections  on  the  part  of  foreign  executives  and  their 
slowness  to  sense  the  Chinese  conception  of  what  is  involved  in 
proper  treatment;  the  difficulty  of  inspiring  promising  students 
with  the  highest  Christian  ideals.  These  comments  are  not  made 
in  any  critical  spirit.  Anyone  who  has  had  the  slightest  acquaint- 
ance with  the  problem  will  feel  hearty  sympathy  with  those  in 
charge  of  college  administration,  and  with  the  Chinese  who  would 


114  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

be  wanted  in  such  positions.  Many  of  the  difficulties  are  inherent 
in  the  situation.  None  the  less  the  strikingly  small  proportion  of 
Chinese  in  executive  or  responsible  teaching  positions  is  a  damag- 
ing weakness,  and  until  it  is  remedied  the  colleges  will  continue  to 
be  regarded  by  many  of  the  Chinese  with  indifference  or  dislike, 
as  a  foreign  element  in  their  national  life. 

201,  It  would  be  expected  that  the  religious  instruction  would 
be  the  finest  element  in  the  course,  but  it  has  often  been  the  least 
satisfactory,  the  courses  being  taught  by  those  who  were  not  needed 
or  fitted  for  other  subjects,  or  were  too  busy  to  prepare  fresh  and 
inspiring  material.  The  attempt  has  too  commonly  been  made  to 
accomplish  by  quantity  and  compulsion  what  can  be  produced  only 
by  quality  and  much  thought  on  the  method  of  teaching  and  the 
real  needs  of  the  students. 


III.    Constructive  Proposals 

202.  It  is  not  a  question  of  what  might  be  planned  if  we  were 
starting  de  novo,  and  with  ample  funds  available  for  any  scheme 
proposed.  We  have  to  deal  with  the  actual  situation.  The  existing 
institutions  all  have  or  are  constructing  physical  plants  representing 
more  or  less  costly  investments ;  they  have  their  respective  constitu- 
encies at  home  and  their  alumni  and  mission  or  other  local  relation- 
ships on  the  field ;  their  traditions,  attachments,  mutual  jealousies 
or  fears,  varying  national,  doctrinal,  ecclesiastical,  or  educational 
standards.  There  are  real  geographical,  linguistic,  economic  and 
other  factors  which  do  not  appear  on  the  surface.  The  question 
cannot  be  solved  by  any  doctrinaire  treatment.  Nevertheless,  an 
improvement  in  the  present  status  is  imperative,  and  is  earnestly 
desired  by  many  of  those  responsible  for  administering  the  colleges. 

203.  Unless  measures  that  commend  themselves  to  those  in 
charge  are  speedily  proposed,  it  is  to  be  feared  that  efforts  to 
remedy  the  situation  will  come  too  late  to  be  effective.  In  the 
judgment  of  the  Commission,  improvement  is  to  be  sought  through 
coordination  and  limitation  or  modification  of  function,  with  con- 
sequent increase  in  total  efficiency,  rather  than  in  the  extensive 


COLLEGIATE  EDUCATION  115 

Uprooting  of  institutions  which  are  the  product  of  much  toil  and 
sacrifice  and  are  deeply  rooted  in  the  soil  of  China. 

In  addition  to  other  weighty  reasons,  this  policy  is  com- 
mended by  prospective  financial  considerations.  To  continue  the 
lead  of  the  past,  the  colleges  and  universities  of  the  Christian 
forces  in  China  must  face  greatly  increased  cost.  Professional 
work  is  more  expensive  than  non-professional ;  present  libraries 
and  equipment  are  far  below  the  standard  required ;  and  salaries, 
especially  of  the  Chinese,  will  need  to  be  materially  increased.  So 
great  will  be  the  need  for  increased  support  that  we  must  prepare 
to  face  the  certain  choice  either  (a)  of  restriction  of  work,  (b) 
greatly  enlarged  support,  or  (c)  more  economical  use  of  funds. 

204.  Having  in  mind  (i)  the  meagre  state  of  development 
which  higher  education,  in  particular  Christian  education,  has  yet 
reached  in  China;  (2)  the  urgent  and  unlimited  need  of  China  for 
men  prepared  for  definite  tasks,  and  the  limited  need  as  yet  of  the 
scholar  of  leisure  and  general  tastes;  (3)  the  limited  resources 
both  of  the  government  and  of  the  Christian  forces,  but  especially 
of  the  latter;  (4)  the  greater  energy  with  which  experience  has 
proved  that  students  devote  themselves  to  work  in  preparation 
for  a  future  occupation  as  compared  with  that  of  students  pursuing 
the  same  studies  without  an  occupational  goal ;  ( 5 )  the  capacity 
of  studies  pursued  with  an  occupational  purpose  to  give  mental 
discipline  and  genuine  culture  if  conducted  in  the  right  atmos- 
phere and  spirit;  (6)  the  necessity  on  the  other  hand  that  pro- 
fessional or  higher  occupational  studies  be  pursued  upon  a  solid 
basis  of  a  knowledge  of  the  subjects  requisite  to  the  prosecution 
of  work  for  any  profession;  and  (7)  the  undesirable  results  of 
too  early  specialization  or  differentiation  of  study  with  reference 
to  future  occupation,  we  recommend": 

a.  That  the  college  course  be  planned  for  four  years  fol- 
lowing the  proposed  new  scheme  of  six  years  elementary  and  six 
years  secondary  study,  but  with  a  special  preparatory  year  in- 
tended for  those  who  for  any  reason  have  been  inadequately  pre- 
pared. Entrance  to  college  should  presuppose  at  least  six  years 
of  daily  study  of  English,  and  good  training  in  Chinese,  with  a 


ii6  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

range  of  alternative  requirements  in  other  subjects,  such  as  will 
allow  the  middle  schools  greater  freedom  for  direct  vocational 
and  other  courses  of  the  kind  which  should  be  planned  for  the 
majority  of  students  who  may  not  enter  college. 

b.  That  the  first  two  years  of  the  four  be  in  general 
preparatory  for  the  more  specific  professional  or  general  cultural 
courses  of  later  years.  There  should  be  the  least  possible  measure 
of  differentiation  between  courses  preparatory  to  the  several  lines 
of  professional  work.  It  may  be  expedient  in  some  cases  that 
occupational  work  begin  in  the  junior  college,  either  being  con- 
cluded in  that  college  or  continued  one  or  more  years  in  the  senior 
college.  No  stress  is  laid  on  the  use  of  the  terms  junior  and 
senior  college ;  they  are  employed  here  for  convenience  and 
brevity. 

c.  That  except  in  one  or  two  institutions  no  prominence 
be  given  to  the  so-called  arts  course  consisting  of  studies  pursued 
for  general  culture  or  in  preparation  for  professional  work  begin- 
ning after  the  completion  of  the  college  course. 

d.  That  in  general  in  the  senior  college  each  institution 
ofifer  and  emphasize  courses  preparatory  to  a  limited  number  of 
professions,  choosing  these  with  reference  to  the  specific  needs 
of  the  community  in  its  region,  and  the  opportunities  offered  by 
other  colleges  accessible  to  its  students. 

e.  That,  since  the  preparation  for  any  profession  should 
not  be  narrowly  technical,  but  should  include  subjects  such  as 
history,  ethics,  sociology  and  religion,  which  give  breadth  of  out- 
look and  insight  into  those  problems  a  knowledge  of  which  is 
essential  to  men  of  all  professions,  the  colleges  provide  courses  in 
these  subjects  in  addition  to  those  which  are  requisite  for  the 
particular  professions  for  which  they  undertake  to  prepare  their 
students. 

f.  That  to  the  list  of  subjects  thus  required  to  give  a 
broad  preparation  for  a  profession  the  college  add  only  such  sub- 
jects as  can  be  given  without  increase  of  the  faculty  necessary 
for  these  courses. 

g.  That  subject  to  proper  regulations  respecting  required 


COLLEGIATE  EDUCATION  117 

studies,  and  the  selection  of  a  major  subject,  the  student  who  has 
not  chosen  his  profession,  or  who  especially  desires  a  longer  course 
of  preparation  for  the  professional  course,  or  who  contemplates 
further  study  abroad,  be  permitted  to  select  studies  from  more 
than  one  professional  group. 

h.  That  the  courses  recommended  for  the  several  pro- 
fessions vary  in  length  according  to  the  nature  and  requirements 
of  the  profession. 

i.  That  the  A.B.  degree  be  given  after  the  completion  of 
four  years  of  successful  college  study  in  any  of  the  courses  ofifered. 
205.  In  the  judgment  of  the  Commission  Christian  colleges 
in  China  are  only  to  a  limite<l  extent  prepared  to  offer  work  which 
emphasizes  research  in  the  more  strict  sense  of  that  term.  Research 
in  the  broad  sense,  in  which  it  covers  not  only  the  discovery  of 
new  data  and  the  deduction  from  these  data  of  new  conclusions, 
but  also  the  study  and  interpretation  of  data  already  established, 
is  a  vital  function  of  all  higher  education,  if  indeed  it  should 
not  run  through  the  whole  educational  process.  Such  research 
is  especially  necessary  in  China  in  order  to  illumine  the  goals 
at  which  the  teaching  of  special  subjects  ought  to  aim,  and  to 
correct  the  tendency  to  accept  opinions  on  the  ground  of  tra- 
dition or  authority.  It  is  essential  that  at  least  all  senior  college 
professors  and  lecturers  should  have  leisure  for  research  of  this 
kind,  that  it  should  be  regarded  as  an  essential  part  of  their  work, 
and  that  some  of  their  students  should  be  instructed  in  research 
methods. 

But  it  remains  true  that  for  the  present  and  immediate 
future,  (post) -graduate  schools  characterized  by  research  in  the 
strictest  sense  of  investigation  of  unsolved  problems  are  almost 
wholly  beyond  the  scope  of  Christian  education.  In  medicine,  re- 
search of  this  kind  may  well  go  on  in  connection  with  professional 
training,  especially  in  a  school  so  exceptionally  equipped  as  that  at 
Peking.  For  special  reasons  we  are  recommending  the  early 
founding  of  an  Institute  of  Educational  Research  (Sections  100, 
251-258)  and  an  Institute  of  Social  Research  (Section  377).  But 
we  believe  that  this  precedent  should  be  followed  in  other  cases 


ii8  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

with  great  caution.  We  have  builded  our  educational  tower  high 
enough,  not  well  enough,  for  the  present.  Schools  for  advanced 
research  in  most  subjects  must  be  left  to  the  future.    See  Sections 

554-557- 

In  a  measure  to  compensate  for  the  lack  of  graduate 
schools  of  research  in  China,  it  is  desirable  that  there  be  established 
a  limited  number  of  research  fellowships  to  be  awarded  for  ex- 
ceptional excellence  in  the  A.  B.  course.  Recipients  of  these  fel- 
lowships might  pursue  studies  in  Europe  or  America  or,  when  the 
field  of  investigation  is  some  phase  of  Chinese  life,  in  China  under 
the  guidance  of  the  teacher  most  competent  to  direct  these  studies. 
206.  We  advise  the  colleges  not  to  undertake  more  lines  of 
professional  work  or  ofifer  a  larger  number  of  subjects  than  they 
can  conduct  thoroughly  well.  The  value  of  an  education  is  not 
measured  by  the  range  of  studies  from  among  which  the  student 
chooses,  nearly  so  much  as  it  is  by  the  character  of  the  work  which 
is  offered  in  the  courses  taken.  Still  less  is  it  increased  in  the 
ratio  of  the  schools  or  departments  which  the  college  advertises. 
We  therefore  advise  that  a  college,  offering  a  limited  range  of 
studies,  do  not  break  these  studies  or  its  faculty  into  separate 
schools  or  colleges.  If,  for  example,  a  college  is  offering  courses 
preparatory  to  teaching  and  to  preaching,  the  courses  in  both  cases 
including  studies  of  a  general  character,  and  is  also  permitting  a 
student  to  pursue  a  general  arts  course  by  selecting  his  studies 
from  the  entire  list  offered,  we  advise  that  the  college  do  not  adver- 
tise schools  or  senior  colleges  of  theology,  of  education,  and  of 
arts,  but  instead  announce  all  the  courses  in  one  list  grouped 
according  to  subject,  such  as,  history,  sociology,  religion.  The 
student  should  indicate  the  occupation  which  he  expects  to  enter, 
or  further  study  which  he  expects  to  pursue,  and  be  guided  by 
advice,  printed  and  oral,  concerning  the  studies  which  are  required 
of  all  students,  and  those  which  are  best  adapted  to  prepare  him 
for  his  future  occupation  or  study.  This  course  is  recommended 
as  less  likely  than  the  other  to  develop  ambition  on  the  part  of 
the  faculty  to  build  up  separate  schools,  increasing  expense  but 
without  corresponding  improvement  of  the  educational  work,  and 


COLLEGIATE  EDUCATION  119 

less  likely  to  lead  the  students  to  pursue  a  course  of  general  study 
without  definite  objective.  As  indicated  above  it  is  our  judgment 
that  all  students  completing  four  years  of  college  work  according 
to  the  standards  and  requirements  of  the  college  should  receive 
the  same  degree.  In  order  to  secure  the  proper  emphasis  on  voca- 
tional courses,  there  may  be  a  committee  (or  board)  of  the  faculty 
on  each  recognized  group  of  studies,  e.  g.,  education,  theology,  arts, 
with  a  chairman  w^ho  should  be  adviser  of  the  students  pursuing 
that  group. 

It  would  seem  that  a  college  having  an  enrollment  of  not 
more  than  one  hundred  students  should  limit  itself  to  one  profes- 
sional course  or  two  at  the  most.  Classes  should  not  be  opened 
for  less  than  eight  or  ten  students. 

207.  A  careful  study  of  the  figures  in  that  section  of  the 
Chapter  on  Cost  of  Education,  which  has  to  do  with  colleges, 
will  reveal  facts  which  should  be  of  great  assistance  to  Mission 
Boards  and  controlling  bodies  on  the  field  in  determining  future 
policy.    See  Sections  680-686. 

208.  In  view  of  the  costly  and  extensive  plants  erected  in  a 
few  instances  either  where  there  had  been  insufficient  attention 
to  the  needs  of  the  area  as  a  whole  or  where  the  enrollment  fails 
to  justify  such  expenditure,  each  institution  should  hereafter 
undertake  additional  construction  only  after  careful  study  and 
with  the  endorsement  of  the  advisory  council  of  the  area.  Mission 
Boards  might  well  adopt  the  policy  of  conditioning  grants  for  new 
buildings  upon  such  endorsement. 

209.  At  least  three  different  meanings  of  the  word  university 
are  current : 

a.  The  somewhat  pretentious  usage  in  America  of  so 
naming  a  college  doing  only  undergraduate  work. 

b.  The  better  American  usage  by  which  this  is  applied 
to  a  single  institution  conducting  both  college  and  (post) -graduate 
or  professional  schools,  usually  on  one  campus  but  always  under 
one  administration.     This  usage  is  found  also  in  Great  Britain. 

c.  A  British  usage  by  which  several  separate  and  autono- 
mous colleges  are  formed  into  a  university  which  functions  through 


120  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

a  senate  or  other  representative  body.  Such  a  university  may,  as 
in  the  case  of  the  University  of  Wales,  have  no  existence  apart 
from  its  constituent  colleges,  or,  as  in  the  case  of  Oxford,  carry  on 
certain  activities  in  its  corporate  capacity. 

Some  of  the  Christian  colleges  in  China  have  apparently 
assumed  the  name  university  as  indicative  of  aspirations  rather 
than  of  actualities.  It  is  suggested  that  in  all  such  instances  the 
name  college  be  substituted.  In  this  report  the  term  university 
wherever  it  occurs  in  recommendations  or  suggestions  is  used  in  the 
British  sense  of  a  system  of  federated  institutions  of  higher  learn- 
ing, which  may,  however,  also  carry  on  certain  work  in  their  cor- 
porate capacity. 

2IO.    In  the  light  of  the  above  discussion  the  Commission 
recommends : 

a.  That  higher  Christian  education  in  China  be  dealt 
with  as  a  unit  in  which  all  nationalities  and  denominations  shall 
participate,  the  interests  of  all  being  cared  for  in  a  single  compre- 
hensive program,  the  controlling  purpose  being,  with  the  total 
available  strength,  to  exert  the  maximum  impact  upon  Chinese  life 
as  a  whole. 

b.  That  it  be  organized  in  six  higher  educational  areas, 
East  China,  West  China,  North  China,  Central  China,  South 
China,  and  Fukien,  and  that,  even  if  we  are  compelled  to  recognize 
that  existing  conditions  prevent  its  immediate  realization,  yet  the 
ideal  be  only  one  university  in  each  area ;  and  that  this  ideal  be  re- 
garded as  a  practicable  one  to  be  striven  for  as  rapidly  as  local 
and  institutional  considerations  permit. 

c.  That  a  college  which  cannot  with  its  present  resources 
conduct  thoroughly  first-class  senior  college  work,  which  neither 
has,  nor  has  reasonable  prospect  of  obtaining  in  the  near  future,  a 
senior  college  of  at  least  fifty  students,  become  a  junior  college, 
advising  its  students  to  go  to  the  college  where  each  can  obtain  the 
vocational  training  for  which  he  seems  best  fitted. 

d.  That  a  college  which  cannot  meet  these  conditions  for 
at  least  seventy-five  students  in  its  junior  college  classes  become  a 
strong  middle  school.     In  this  connection  attention  is  again  called 


COLLEGIATE  EDUCATION  I21 

to  the  supreme  importance  to  the  Christian  movement  of  maintain- 
ing more  and  better  middle  schools,  the  increased  difficulty  and 
importance  of  maintaining  such  schools  on  the  proposed  six  years 
basis,  and  the  relatively  small  share  these  schools  now  have  of 
mission  funds  and  qualified  teachers.     See  Section  156  ff. 

e.  That  in  each  area  coordination  of  the  work  of  the 
several  elements  be  effected  through  a  university  senate  or  ad- 
visory council,  including  in  its  membership  representatives  of  all 
the  federated  institutions.  The  powers  of  this  senate  should  be 
advisory  rather  than  legally  compulsory,  but  each  institution  should 
present  its  plans  of  work  to  the  senate  for  advice,  and  no  depart- 
ment of  work  should  be  discontinued  or  added  until  the  institution 
has  first  sought  and  obtained  the  advice  of  the  senate. 

f.  That  there  be  a  jointly  maintained  College  Entrance 
Board,  which  shall  conduct  examinations  and  tests  (preferably  of 
the  "comprehensive"  type)  in  various  parts  of  the  country,  with  a 
view  to  admitting  students  to  any  college  or  university  in  the 
association.  This  board  should  include  members  of  educational 
associations,  appointed  to  represent  the  middle  school  point  of 
view.  It  ought  to  be  sufficiently  staffed  to  investigate  the  work  and 
record  of  the  different  middle  schools,  and  advise  with  them  as  to 
their  respective  deficiencies.    See  Sections  169-174. 

211.    The  following  advantages  would  almost  inevitably  result 
from  the  plans  proposed  above : 

a.  The  moral  effect  upon  the  Chinese  public  would  be 
desirable.  The  very  fact  of  giving  this  convincing  testimony  to 
our  essential  oneness  would  be  worth  a  large  measure  of  loss  and 
inconvenience  to  individual  schools.  Chinese  Christian  leaders 
and  government  educators  have,  without  exception,  endorsed  the 
general  plan  of  a  smaller  number  of  really  strong  colleges. 

b.  It  would  also  be  of  no  slight  help  to  the  Chinese 
churclies,  now  striving  to  realize  a  unity  hitherto  made  difficult  by 
the  multiplicity  of  western  agencies.  Some  such  reduction  would 
seem  necessary  if  Chinese  Christianity  is  to  take  over  the  support 
of  so  costly  a  system  of  education. 

c.  The  spiritual  results  on  those  in  charge  would  alone 


132  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

justify  the  effort.  At  present,  the  strain  due  to  attempting  the 
task  of  doing  what  is  expected  of  each,  is  telhng  upon  the  vitahty 
of  administrative  officers,  and  is  in  danger  of  producing  a  mental 
attitude  which  can  not  but  weaken  their  personal  effectiveness. 
They  and  their  faculty  members  are  often  too  busy  with  routine 
tasks  to  exert  that  influence  on  the  students  for  which  the  institu- 
tions largely  exist.  Some  of  their  choicest  members  are  kept  in 
America  for  competing  financial  campaigns. 

d.  Delimitation  and  wisely  distributed  specialization 
ought  to  result  in  each  doing  its  less  ambitious  task  much  more 
efficiently. 

e.  There  would  be  more  money  and  teachers  available  for 
other  forms  of  educational  or  religious  activity,  including  the 
supremely  important  but  relatively  inexpensive  work  in  government 
schools.  The  release  of  qualified  persons  for  direct  moral  and 
religious  work  among  students  in  non-Christian  schools,  or  the 
furnishing  of  teachers  for  such  schools,  would  manifest  a  desire 
to  be  unselfishly  helpful.  The  Chinese  would  be  quick  to  appre- 
ciate such  a  policy,  and  it  might  count  far  more  for  the  truest 
objectives  of  Christian  education  than  the  present  policy. 

f.  Extension  work  in  the  form  of  a  series  of  popular 
lectures  by  a  group  of  experts  drawn  from  different  colleges, 
going  from  one  city  to  another  in  cooperation  with  the  well 
equipped  lecture  department  of  the  Young  Men's  Christian  As- 
sociation, offers  large  possibilities  of  widespread  influence. 

212.    The  following  suggestions  on  organization  are  offered: 

a.  The  Association  of  Christian  Colleges  and  Universi- 
ties should  take  a  leading  part  in  putting  into  effect  such  policies  as 
have  been  outlined  and  in  advancing  the  common  welfare  of  its 
members. 

b.  This  association  should  seek  on  the  one  hand  a  more 
clearly  defined  relation  to  the  China  Christian  Educational  Associa- 
tion, preferably  becoming  its  department  of  higher  education,  and 
on  the  other  establish  a  close  connection  with  the  senate,  or  advisory 
council,  in  each  higher  educational  area. 

c.  Arrangement  should  be  made  for  the  employment  as 


COLLEGIATE  EDUCATION  123 

soon  as  possible  of  at  least  one  full  time  secretary,  among  whose 
functions  would  be: 

(i)    Corresponding  with  the  constituent  schools. 

(2)  Keeping  comparative  records. 

(3)  Directing  entrance  examinations  under  a  College 
Entrance  Board,  held  in  various  parts  of  the  country  and  conducted 
alike  for  every  college  in  the  association. 

(4)  Publishing  announcements  describing  the  courses 
ofifered  by  the  whole  system  of  colleges,  requirements,  and  fees, 
for  the  information  of  mission  and  government  middle  school 
students. 

(5)  Cultivating  Chinese,  British,  and  American  resi- 
dents in  China  with  a  view  to  securing  their  moral  and  financial 
support. 

(6)  Maintaining  a  cooperative  teachers'  agency. 

(7)  Studying  government  education  and  fostering  cor- 
dial relations  with  government  educational  circles. 

(8)  Serving  as  a  medium  for  correspondence  with  the 
headquarters  proposed  in  New  York  and  London. 

213.  The  Association  of  Christian  Colleges  and  Universi- 
ties might  consider  the  advisability  of  recommending  to  the  con- 
trolling boards  in  Great  Britain  and  America  the  maintenance  of 
joint  headquarters  in  New  York  and  London  to  serve  their  common 
interests.  These  controlling  boards  might  find  it  helpful  to  ap- 
point a  joint  committee  or  board  composed  largely  of  those  who 
are  at  once  in  closest  sympathy  with  the  evangelistic  purpose  of 
Christian  missions  and  experienced  in  educational  problems,  pre- 
ferably also  with  direct  knowledge  of  China.  This  joint  committee 
could  serve  in  all  such  ways  as  might  be  found  helpful,  such  as 
organizing  financial  campaigns,  receiving  and  distributing  such 
funds  as  are  entrusted  to  it  by  Mission  Boards  or  from  other 
sources.  Such  campaigns  should  preserve  to  the  utmost  any 
interest  in  a  particular  institution  that  has  been  or  may  be  developed 
and  would  be  expected  to  utilize  the  advantage  that  comes  from 
concrete  or  personal  associations.  Lists  should  be  kept  of  all  needs 
approved  by  the  Association  of   Colleges  and  Universities  in  a 


124  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

preferred  order.  Mission  Boards  not  responsible  for  the  main- 
tenance of  existing  institutions  might  be  induced  to  make  annual 
grants  to  such  a  common  fund,  and  an  increasing  number  of  the 
others  might  find  it  preferable  to  make  their  appropriations  either 
through  or  with  the  advice  of  this  joint  committee. 

214.  Mission  Boards  should  be  requested  to  study  the  total 
program  of  higher  education  in  China  and  make  grants  with  a  view 
to  the  most  effective  achievement  of  this  total  program,  rather  than 
in  response  to  sectional  or  other  subsidiary  appeals.  This  does  not 
mean  that  any  Board  should  not  provide  chiefly  or  even  exclusively 
for  its  denominational  schools.  If  any  such  school  is  fitting  into  its 
proper  place  in  the  general  scheme,  the  Board  could  contribute  to 
the  whole  program  in  no  way  more  helpfully  than  by  giving  it 
adequate  support. 

IV.    Regional  Recommendations 

215.  North  China. — North  China  naturally  engages  our 
first  attention.  It  has  been  a  field  of  missionar}'-  activity  for  many 
years.  Educational  efforts  have  centered  chiefly  at  two  points : 
Peking  in  Chih  and  Tsinan  in  Shantung. 

Any  scheme  of  Christian  education  which  omitted  Peking 
or  failed  to  give  it  a  commanding  place,  would  be  fatally  defective. 
This  city  is  not  only  the  capital  of  the  Republic,  as  it  was  also 
the  capital  of  the  Empire  for  many  generations,  but  in  many 
respects  it  is  the  most  important  city  in  China.  Here  more  than 
at  any  other  point  the  new  intellectual  life  of  China  finds  its  center 
and  comes  to  expression.  Here  more  than  anywhere  else  the  old 
traditional  conceptions,  the  new  non-Christian  ideas  flowing  in 
from  western  countries,  and  the  new  leaven  of  Christianity  will 
come  into  contact  and  conflict.  Here  it  is  essential  that  Chris- 
tianity should  maintain  a  stronghold  of  enlightened  Christian 
thought. 

It  is  recommended : 

a.  That  Peking  University  and  Shantung  Christian  Uni- 
versity be  incorporated  so  as  to  form  a  single  Christian  university 
for  North  China, 


COLLEGIATE  EDUCATION  125 

b.  That  the  combined  university  maintain  in  Peking  a 
four-year  college  course  including  a  junior  college  preparatory 
to  literary  and  scientific  professional  courses,  for  which  an  ade- 
quate knowledge  of  English  is  a  prerequisite;  a  general  senior 
college  course  with  special  emphasis  on  the  social  sciences ;  and  a 
school  of  literature  giving  attention  to  translation  and  facility  in 
writing  in  the  new  Chinese  literary  style. 

c.  That  the  combined  university  maintain  in  Tsinan  a 
junior  college  with  pre-medical  and  other  preparatory  courses 
giving  attention  to  the  "national  language" ;  the  school  of  medi- 
cine with  its  present  standards ;  and  a  school  of  education,  training 
primary  and  middle  school  teachers.  These  schools  should  in 
general  use  Chinese  as  the  medium  of  instruction. 

d.  That  the  combined  university  maintain  a  school  of 
theology  with  two  courses  :  ( i )  the  one  in  Peking  to  continue  from 
three  to  five  years  beyond  junior  college,''Tequiring  adequate 
knowledge  of  English,  emphasizing  problems  of  city  pastoral  and 
evangelistic  work,  training  teachers  of  theology  and  of  religious 
education;  (2)  the  one  in  Tsinan  continuing  not  more  than  two 
years  beyond  junior  college,  teaching  chiefly  in  Chinese,  closely  re- 
lated to  the  school  of  education,  and  giving  special  attention  to  the 
problems  of  the  rural  and  small  town  church"  and  school  and  to  re- 
search work  on  the  part  of  the  faculty  in  this  supremely  important 
field.  It  is  expected  that  some  students  would  elect  courses  in 
education  as  well  as  theology  and  be  qualified  to  teach  in  or  super- 
intend schools  as  well  as  to  do  ministerial  work. 

e.  That  agriculture  (animal  husbandry)  be  continued 
in  Peking  if  supported  hereafter  as  hitherto  from  sources  other 
than  the  Mission  Boards. 

f.  That  junior  and  senior  college  courses  both  in 
Peking  and  Tsinan  be  open  to  men  and  women  alike  either  by 
affiliation  or  coeducation  as  conditions  may  indicate  to  be  expe- 
dient, 

g.  That  the  university  open  a  boys'  middle  school  in 
Tsinan  to  be  maintained  at  the  highest  standard  of  efficiency,  and 
to  serve  as  a  practice  school  for  the  school  of  education.     The 


126  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

senior  middle  school  should  provide  a  course  for  training  teachers 
in  elementary  schools. 

h.  That  the  junior  colleges  in  Moukden,  Peking,  and 
Shansi  consider  whether  by  limiting  themselves  to  middle  schools 
of  the  six-year  type,  thoroughly  staffed  and  equipped,  they  would 
not  contribute  more  effectively  to  the  advancement  of  Christian 
education  and  the  building  up  of  a  strong  Christian  community  in 
North  China. 

216.  East  China. — The  ideal  organization  of  higher  educa- 
tion under  Christian  auspices  in  East  China  would  be : 

a.  A  university,  amply  provided  with  land,  buildings 
(including  chapel  and  library),  equipment,  and  faculty,  and  con- 
ducting senior  college,  professional,  and  ultimately  (post) -graduate 
work.  Such  a  university  might  be  of  the  ordinary  American  type 
having  sole  responsibility  for  the  care  and  instruction  of  its 
students.  It  would  probably  better  be  of  the  West  China  type, 
which  is  a  modification  of  that  existing  at  Oxford  as  the  result  of 
centuries  of  evolution,  and  at  various  other  places  in  the  Old 
World  and  the  New.  It  would  have  associated  with  itself  as  a 
teaching  institution,  hostels  or  residential  colleges  located  imme- 
diately adjacent  to  it,  and  maintained  by  the  missions,  or  colleges, 
or  Chinese  communities,  doing  educational  work  in  this  region. 

b.  At  various  points  in  East  China,  probably  at  the 
points  at  which  colleges  now  exist,  associated  middle  schools, 
junior  colleges,  and  special  schools.  These  schools  should  all  be 
closely  associated  with  the  university,  whether  legally  independent 
or  under  its  direct  control.  Schools  of  (post) -graduate  or  pro- 
fessional character  should  preferably  be  of  the  latter  class.  Each 
of  the  residential  colleges  at  the  central  university  location  might 
well  be  connected  with  one  of  the  outlying  colleges  or  schools  and 
bear  a  name  suggesting  this  relationship. 

217.  Were  the  situation  in  East  China  to-day  comparable  to 
that  which  existed  in  West  China  in  1909,  we  should  doubtless 
recommend  an  organization  similar  to  that  which  was  then  adopted 
there,  though  on  a  much  larger  scale  because  of  the  much  larger 
Christian  population  of  the  eastern  region. 


COLLEGIATE  EDUCATION  127 

The  progress  already  made  in  the  development  of  Chris- 
tian education  in  East  China,  for  which  we  have  abundant  reason 
to  be  grateful ;  the  fact  that  this  progress  has  resulted  in  the 
building  of  a  number  of  separate  institutions  with  costly  and 
attractive  grounds  and.  buildings,  with  alumni  who  look  to  them 
with  pride  and  affection,  and  supporters  in  America  who  cherish 
a  deep  interest  in  them  and  their  future  development;  together 
with  the  very  large  cost  of  establishing  and  maintaining  a  new 
institution  of  university  character  such  as.  we  have  described, 
render  it  impracticable  to  make  a  wholly  new  beginning. 

Yet  we  are  fully  convinced  that  future  developments 
should  be  in  the  direction  of  the  realization  of  the  plan  above  out- 
lined, except  that  the  university  of  the  future  should  be  of  the 
University  of  London,  rather  than  of  the  Oxford  type.  The  main- 
tenance of  several  faculties  doing  in  large  part  the  same  work  in 
different  institutions,  all  within  a  few  hours  travel  of  one  another, 
is  uneconomical,  and  conducive  neither  to  unity  nor  to  strength. 

The  process  of  producing  such  a  university  as  we  recom- 
mend out  of  the  existing  conditions  would  be  similar  to  that  by 
which  the  University  of  London  itself  reached  its  present  stage  of 
development.  It  is  interesting  to  note  that  similar  developments 
have  by  definite  intention  taken  place  at  various  points  in  Canada 
and  the  United  States.  By  this  process  the  existing  institutions 
would  be  built  into  a  unified  whole,  a  real  university,  although  its 
several  schools  must  be  at  some  distance  from  one  another. 

218.  As  leading  toward  the  goal  which  we  believe  the 
University  of  East  China  should  adopt  and  seek  to  attain,  we 
recommend  the  following  next  steps  : 

a.  That  East  China  be  treated  as  a  single  higher  educa- 
tional area  and  include :  St.  John's  University,  University  of  Nan- 
king, Soochow  University,  Shanghai  College,  Hangchow  Chris- 
tian College,  Ginling  College,  Nanking  Theological  Seminary. 
Other  existing  institutions  along  the  eastern  coast  would  also  be 
eligible.  If  a  union  medical  college,  or  any  other  professional 
institutions,  are  added  as  separate  entities  they  should  also  be  in- 
cluded.   See  Sections  329ff. 


128  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

b.  That  there  be  an  advisory  council  composed  of  three 
representatives  of  each  of  the  constituent  institutions,  whosie 
function  it  shall  be  to  study  the  whole  matter  of  Christian  educa- 
tion in  East  China  in  relation  to  education  in  all  parts  of  China  and 
to  make  recommendations  to  the  colleges  as  to  the  departments  of 
work  which  they  shall  maintain.  No  institution  should  undertake 
new  lines  of  work  or  discontinue  work  already  in  progress  without 
first  seeking  the  advice  of  the  advisory  council. 

c.  That  there  should  be  in  the  not  distant  future  a 
university  corporation  under  whatever  name  may  seem  best,  having 
a  double  function,  on  the  one  hand  itself  carrying  on  such  educa- 
tional work  as  can  be  done  by  all  the  Christian  forces  in  union, 
through  schools  which  it  shall  establish  or  take  over  and  main- 
tain; on  the  other  hand  constituting  the  central  and  coordinating 
element  of  the  whole  group  of  higher  educational  institutions  of 
East  China,  which  together  make  up  the  university  in  the  larger 
sense  of  the  term. 

The  precise  departments  which  the  university  itself 
should  conduct  must  be  determined  by  experience.  We  suggest  as 
jTiost  clearly  and  appropriately  falling  within  its  scope,  and  as  de- 
sirable to  be  conducted  in  as  close  proximity  to  one  another  as 
possible,  the  School  of  Medicine,  the  School  of  Law  and  Political 
Science,  the  proposed  Institute  of  Economic  and  Social  Research, 
the  University  Extension  Division  or  the  School  of  Public  Opinion. 
Though  it  may  not  be  possible  to  conduct  all  these  at  one  site,  there 
should  be  one  thoroughly  good  building  near  the  centre  of  Shang- 
hai, in  which  certain  parts  of  this  work  should  be  done,  in  which 
the  general  offices  of  the  university  and  the  constituent  colleges 
should  be  located,  and  which  should  stand  out  clearly  before  the 
general  public  as  the  visible  expression  of  the  unity  of  the  Chris- 
tian education  of  East  China.  Lines  of  work  not  conducted  at 
this  headquarters  building  may  be  conducted  wherever  it  seemed 
best  in  East  China. 

d.  That  besides  the  departments  of  work  named  above, 
the  university  or  its  constituent  colleges  should  conduct  general 
senior  college  and  teacher  training  courses,  a  college  of  school-ad- 


COLLEGIATE  EDUCATION  129 

ministration,  schools  of  theology,  a  school  of  agriculture,  and,  if 
it  can  be  conducted  without  expense  to  the  missions,  a  school  of 
civil  engineering  and  architecture. 

Of  the  lines  of  work  not  undertaken  by  the  university 
proper  each  college  should  conduct  the  particular  department  best 
adapted  to  its  location  and  relationships,  all  unnecessary  duplica- 
tion being  avoided  in  the  interest  of  economy  and  the  highest 
efficiency.  Lines  of  work  which  can  be  best  done  at  one  of  the 
colleges  but  by  the  university  proper,  might  by  agreement  be  so 
conducted, 

e.  That  the  missions  and  home  Boards  be  urged  to  dis- 
approve the  establishment  of  any  more  junior  or  senior  colleges* 
either  for  men  or  women,  in  the  East  China  area. 

The  plan  of  the  Federated  University,  while  not  the  ideal, 
seems  to  offer  the  best  solution  of  the  difficulty  which  the  pres- 
ent circumstances  will  allow.  It  will  succeed  only  when,  by 
the  severe  limitation  of  effort,  by  the  reduction  of  faculty  mem- 
bers and  by  avoiding  duplication  of  equipment,  sufficient  funds 
are  released  to  enable  the  work  now  done  to  receive  support 
adequate  to  the  standard  demanded  by  the  future. 

219,  Central  China. — The  Commission  has  been  impressed 
by  the  exceptional  opportunity  for  erecting  a  great  Christian  uni- 
versity in  the  heart  of  China.  This  area  includes  the  "Wu  Han" 
cities — Wuchang,  a  viceregal  capital  and  seat  of  literary  culture 
under  the  old  regime,  birthplace  of  the  Republic  and  of  China's 
modern  educational  development ;  Hankow,  destined  to  be  the 
greatest  commercial  and  industrial  centre  of  inland  China;  Han- 
yang, an  ancient  town  in  which  huge  and  up-to-date  iron  works 
have  now  been  located.  This  group  of  cities  is  on  the  Yangtse 
River,  and  has  railway  lines  built  or  projected  from  Peking  to 
Canton  and  from  Shanghai  to  the  western  frontier,  Changsha, 
to  the  south,  is  famous  for  its  scholarly  traditions,  and  is  the  capi- 
tal of  a  province  whose  people  are  among  the  richest  and  most 
intelligent  in  China,  The  natural  territory  of  a  university  in  this 
area  is  vast,  and  it  would  be  accessible  to  students  from  a  distance 
in  all  directions.    These  geographical  advantages  are  accentuated 


130  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

by  the  potentialities  which  would  be  realized  in  the  educational 
work  already  established  in  the  area  if  this  were  concentrated  into 
a  single  enterprise.  Yale  University  has  reproduced  its  own  finest 
traditions  in  a  college  in  Changsha;  British  missions  have  laid 
strong  foundations  in  their  Wu  Han  schools  which,  reinforced  by 
an  English  University  mission,  might,  if  combined  with  Yale,  re- 
sult in  an  Anglo-American  institution,  able  to  contribute  the  best 
scholastic  ideals  of  the  two  countries  blended  and  adapted  to 
Chinese  needs.  If  the  University  of  Upsala  saw  fit  to  include  its 
proposed  educational  mission,  it  would  enrich  the  international 
project  with  a  third  and  valuable  element.  Boone  University  al- 
ready has  a  splendid  record  of  achievement.  A  university  thus 
broadly  planned,  bearing  the  names  of  honored  western  seats  of 
learning,  supported  by  all  the  missions  of  the  area,  ought  to  attract 
the  favorable  attention  of  the  people  in  the  nations  represented  and 
of  the  Chinese,  in  a  section  of  increasing  wealth  and  unusual  readi- 
ness to  cooperate.  The  vision  of  what  such  an  institution  could 
become  stirs  the  imagination.  In  contrast  with  the  present  policy, 
the  financial  gains,  the  spiritual  significance,  and  the  more  lasting 
service  to  the  Chinese  people  are  obvious. 

220.  Instead  of  suggesting  in  detail  a  process  by  which  the 
University  might  be  brought  into  existence,  the  Commission  pre- 
fers to  record  certain  broad  but  clear  convictions  in  the  confidence 
that  those  immediately  concerned  will  themselves  determine  what 
course  is  best. 

In  general  the  plan  which  most  commends  itself  is  the 
following : 

a.  At  least  the  senior  college  work  should  be  conducted 
under  one  faculty.  This  might  be  done  at  one  place  or  at  two,  but 
our  judgment  favors  its  being  done  at  one,  and  we  believe  that  if 
at  one  place,  that  should  be  Wuchang.  With  the  senior  college 
(whether  at  one  place  or  two)  there  should  of  course  be  associated 
a  junior  college. 

b.  All  the  missionary  societies  and  university  missions 
should  combine  in  the  maintenance  of  this  university. 

c.  All  existing  institutions  should  relate  themselves  to  it. 


COLLEGIATE  EDUCATION  131 

d.  In  order  to  put  the  plan  into  effect  without  delay,  one 
of  the  schools  might  accommodate  the  university  in  its  present 
plant. 

e.  The  existing  schools  should  not  begin  any  new  con- 
struction that  would  be  prejudicial  to  the  union  enterprise,  but 
should  make  its  earliest  realization  their  controlling  thought. 

f.  Buildings  might  be  erected  and  maintained  by  the 
different  schools  on  the  university  campus,  retaining  the  names  of 
the  schools  and  serving  residential  purposes. 

g.  Special  emphasis  should  be  placed  on  courses  in 
theology  conducted  by  different  churches  but  having  much  in 
common. 

h.    All  the  other  plants  should  be  used  for  middle  schools. 

i.  In  putting  into  effect  the  above  suggestions,  the  fol- 
lowing initial  steps  should  be  taken : 

(i)  A  conference  of  representatives  of  the  several  in- 
stitutions and  controlling  missions  should  be  held  and  an  agree- 
ment reached  as  to  the  end  to  be  achieved  and  the  process  for 
achieving  it. 

(2)  A  senate  or  council  should  be  formed  which,  with 
the  consent  of  the  governing  bodies  but  without  incorporation  or 
legal  control,  shall  recommend  the  financial  and  property  adjust- 
ments, advise  as  to  the  most  effective  distribution  of  available 
teachers  and  the  extent  and  type  of  work  each  constituent  element 
should  undertake,  and  determine  in  general  the  final  basis  of 
organization. 

(3)  The  legal  papers  should  be  drawn  out  and  the  con- 
sent of  the  several  governing  bodies  secured  to  the  contract  which 
will  make  the  university  a  legal  entity. 

221.    FuKiEN. — It  is  recommended  : 

a.  That  inasmuch  as  for  geographical  and  other  natural 
causes  it  is  impracticable  at  present  to  include  this  province  either 
in  the  South  or  East  China  areas,  Fukien  Province  be  treated  as 
a  higher  educational  area. 

b.  That  in  view  of  the  limited  content  of  this  area  the 
present  Fukien  Christian  University  be  maintained  as  the  only 


132  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

institution  doing  junior  and  senior  college  work,  and  that  the 
senior  college  offer  a  single  course  in  arts,  education  and  theology, 
from  which  students  will  in  the  main  be  encouraged  to  elect  studies 
preparing  them  for  teaching  or  preaching. 

c.  That  advanced  work  in  theology  be  conducted  by  the 
faculty  of  the  Union  Theological  Seminary,  as  an  integral  part  of 
the  collegiate  course. 

d.  That  in  view  of  the  excellence  of  the  work  being  done 
in  the  middle  school  of  the  Woman's  College  of  South  China,  the 
emphasis  be  kept  on  such  work:  that  the  middle  school  be  re- 
organized, under  its  present  control,  into  a  six-year  school  of  the 
new  type,  and  that  the  Woman's  Foreign  Missionary  Society  of 
the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  be  requested  to  consider  seriously 
some  plan  by  which  the  college  may  be  made  a  union  college, 
affiliated  with  Fukien  Christian  University. 

222.  South  China, — It  is  recommended : 

a.  That  Canton  Christian  College  be  encouraged  to 
develop  along  its  present  lines  of  solid  growth,  with  Kwantung 
and  Kwangsi  as  its  natural  territory  and  to  provide  for  women 
students  as  well  as  for  men. 

b.  That  the  Mission  Boards  having  work  in  the 
area  be  advised  to  aid  in  the  maintenance  of  the  college,  and  that 
the  local  missions  be  requested  to  make  recommendations  to  this 
effect, 

c.  That  the  higher  department  of  the  Union  Theological 
Seminary  be  advised  to  transfer  its  work  to  the  Canton  Christian 
College  campus. 

d.  That  the  following  senior  college  courses  be  empha- 
sized:  (i)  education,  especially  to  train  middle  school  teachers  of 
English,  science,  agriculture  and  civics;  (2)  agriculture,  including 
horticulture  and  sericulture,  and  perhaps  (3)  commerce  and  social 
science. 

223.  West  China. — It  is  recommended  : 

a.  That  Szechwan  be  treated  as  a  higher  educational  area 
and  that  for  the  present  Yunnan  and  Kweichow  be  included  with 
it.    Whether  these  two  provinces  remain  in  this  or  another  group- 


COLLEGIATE  EDUCATION  I33 

ing,  no  school  of  college  grade  should  be  planned  for  either  in  the 
near  future. 

b.  That,  partly  because  of  isolation,  partly  because  of  the 
unified  system  already  worked  out,  West  China  Union  University 
be  advised  to  continue  its  present  courses  of  arts,  science,  medicine, 
education  and  religion. 

c.  That  higher  education  for  women  when  developed  be 
either  in  a  coordinated  college  or  on  a  coeducational  basis. 

V.    Conclusion 

224.  The  Commission  having  frankly  indicated  weaknesses 
and  needed  reforms  in  the  system  of  Christian  colleges,  desires  to 
put  on  record  its  appreciation  of  their  splendid  achievements,  the 
devotion  and  abilities  of  the  men  and  women  on  their  faculties,  and 
the  surpassing  importance  of  their  place  in  the  Christian  move- 
ment. From  them  must  come  the  educated  Christian  workers  and 
laymen  who  are  absolutely  necessary  for  the  healthy  development 
of  Chinese  Christianity.  Through  them  will  be  mediated  to 
Chinese  political,  social  and  industrial  progress,  the  contribution 
of  western  Christian  ideals  and  methods.  They  are  the  most  con- 
spicuous and  convincing  expression  to  the  Chinese  public  of  the 
spirit  of  friendh^  helpfulness  and  the  ability  to  render  worth- 
while service,  which  are  implicit  in  the  missionary  enterprise.  The 
Commission  is  convinced  that  the  Mission  Boards  should  consider 
seriously  the  proposed  changes  in  policy,  but  also  that  within  these 
conditions  the  colleges  should  be  strengthened  to  the  limit  of  finan- 
cial resources  and  by  the  appointment  of  the  choicest  Chinese  and 
western  teachers  to  be  found. 

VI.    Summary  of  Recommendations 

( I ) .  Six  higher  educational  areas :  North  China,  East 
China,  Central  China,  South  China,  West  China,  Fukien. 

(2),  Each  area  to  be  treated  as  a  unit  in  which  there  is 
either  a  single  institution,  or  coordination  secured  through  an  ad- 


134  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

visory  council  looking  toward  ultimate  incorporation  into  a  single 
institution. 

(3).  The  Association  of  Colleges  and  Universities  (or 
Department  of  Higher  Education  in  the  China  Christian  Educa- 
tional Association)  to  correlate  all  the  institutions  of  each  area  with 
a  view  to  avoiding  duplication,  and  in  every  way  possible  to  increas- 
ing efficiency  and  reducing  expense. 

(4).  A  College  Entrance  Board  to  conduct  examina- 
tions and  tests  in  various  centres  for  all  the  colleges. 

(5).  A  joint  committee  or  board  with  headquarters  in 
New  York  City  and  London,  to  serve  the  common  interests  of  the 
colleges  at  the  home  base. 

(6).  A  college  course  to  consist  of  four  years  following 
six  years  of  elementary  and  six  years  of  secondary  study,  with  a 
special  preparatory  year  for  students  unable  to  enter  college.  The 
first  two  years  (junior  college)  to  consist  as  a  rule  of  general  and 
preparatory  studies;  the  last  two  (senior  college)  to  be  as  a  rule 
professional.  The  professional  courses  may,  however,  continue 
only  one  year  or  more  than  two,  as  different  subjects  require,  but 
the  A.  B.  degree  should  be  conferred  on  satisfactory  completion  of 
the  four  years  in  any  course. 

(7).  All  professional  courses  open  alike  to  men  and 
women,  and  junior  college  work  for  women  either  on  a  bj^sis  of 
coeducation,  or  in  affiliated  colleges,  or  in  a  college  related  to  others 
in  the  area  through  an  advisory  council. 


CHAPTER  IV 

THE  EDUCATION  OF  TEACHERS  AND  THE 
ADVANCEMENT  OF  EDUCATION 

225.  The  educational  task  of  the  Christian  forces  in  China 
is  one  of  extraordinary  complexity  and  we  may  look  forward  with 
confidence  to  an  increase  of  its  difficulty  as  time  goes  on.  Con- 
ditions are  changing.  There  is  a  movement  away  from  the  rural 
districts  towards  the  city.  Industrial  processes  are  being  revo- 
lutionised, foreign  ideas  are  taking  root.  With  each  change 
comes  a  new  economic,  industrial,  social,  intellectual,  or  moral 
problem,  part  of  the  solution  for  which  must  come  through  edu- 
cation. An  extended  system  of  government  education  is  being 
slowly  perfected.  All  kinds  of  private  schools  and  colleges  are 
increasingly  influential.  It  is  necessary  in  order  that  Christian 
education  may  maintain  its  leadership  and  render  the  service  which 
Christian  ideals  and  practices  alone  can  give,  that  the  modern 
Christian  educational  system  be  not  only  of  a  high  order  and  de- 
cidedly effective,  but  forward-looking,  easily  modified  to  meet 
new  conditions,  and  sensitive  to  change.  There  are  certain  char- 
acteristics essential  to  such  a  system  of  schools. 

I.    The  Essentials  of  an  Effective  System  of  Schools 

226.  In  a  sense,  a  system  of  schools  may  be  regarded  as  an 
organism  created  to  produce  certain  desired  changes  in  people. 
The  fingers  and  hands  are  the  teachers;  the  nerves,  the  super- 
visory force;  the  brain,  the  central  administration.  All  are  mu- 
tually dependent,  and  in  consequence  each  is  of  equal  importance. 

135 


136  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

a.  In  order  that  the  system  may  be  effective,  therefore, 
it  is  necessary  that  there  be  at  the  center  some  agency  which,  in 
careful  and  detailed  fashion,  shall  determine  the  purpose  of  the 
process.  The  experiences  of  other  lands  should  be  considered. 
The  trials,  successes  and  errors  of  other  systems  should  be  given 
vi^eight.  Analysis  of  local  problems,  social,  economic  and  re- 
ligious, should  be  made,  that  exact  ideas  of  the  finest  products 
may  be  secured. 

In  order  to  obtain  this  product,  to  effect  this  change, 
to  conduct  education  so  as  to  achieve  this  end,  the  ways  and  means 
of  the  process  should  receive  careful  study.  The  content,  ar- 
rangement, and  order  of  the  curriculum  should  be  worked  out, 
and  the  materials  of  instruction  necessary  to  the  process  should 
be  developed  and  provided.  Then  the  methods  should  be  deter- 
mined by  which  the  curriculum  may  be  best  presented  to  and 
mastered  by  the  pupils.  How  to  make  this  a  part  of  the  teach- 
ers' work;  how  to  see  that  the  best  results  are  secured,  either  by 
standardising  the  product  or  watching  the  process ;  how  to  group 
pupils  for  most  effective  work;  how  to  advance  them  from  stage 
to  stage ;  how  to  select,  train  and  promote  teachers ;  how  to  train 
character;  how  to  form  good  habits;  how  to  give  culture;  how 
to  instill  good  manners  and  breeding ;  how  to  govern  schools  most 
effectively;  how  to  keep  records  and  make  such  reports  as  may 
be  needed ;  how  to  keep  children  healthy  and  how  to  make  schools 
so  hygienic  as  not  to  impede  progress;  how  to  construct  proper 
buildings  and  secure  such  equipment  that  the  educational  process 
may  be  best  carried  out ;  these  are  some  of  the  problems  of  the 
brain  of  the  organism.  They  are  not  easily  solved.  It  requires 
much  learning,  great  skill,  a  wide  knowledge  of  the  experience  of 
others,  a  penetrating  understanding  of  the  local  situation,  and  an 
enormous  amount  of  investigation  and  research.  But  without  the 
solution  of  these  problems  the  fingers  and  hands  do  not  know 
how  to  work  most  effectively,  the  nerves  to  give  impulses,  the 
brain  to  direct. 

b.  The  fingers  and  hands,  the  teachers,  must  be  com- 
petent to  carry  out  the  plans  of  the  central  organization.     Each 


THE  EDUCATION  OF  TEACHERS  I37 

must  be  sensitive  to  the  demands  confronting  him.  Each  must 
be  skilled  in  the  processes  of  his  task.  Not  only  must  he  have 
an  appreciation  of  skilled  work  when  he  sees  it,  but  he  must  him- 
self be  trained  to  become  a  skilled  technician.  While  many  teach- 
ers in  the  past  have  reached  this  stage  of  efficiency  by  a  process 
of  trial  and  error  in  years  of  experience,  the  process  has  been 
wasteful.  In  general  we  can  expect  such  teachers  only  as  a  re- 
sult of  distinct  professional  preparation. 

c.  The  nerves,  the  supervisors  and  administrators,  are 
useful  only  in  so  far  as  they  facilitate  the  work  of  the  teacher  or 
carry  messages  to  and  from  the  central  organization.  Their 
task  is  to  keep  the  work  going,  free  the  teacher  from  petty  detail, 
see  that  the  direction  of  the  work  is  right,  and  keep  the  central 
organization  in  touch  with  the  work  that  is  going  on.  To  per- 
form this  function  properly  demands  training  that  is  thorough 
in  character  and  truly  professional. 

d.  In  addition,  there  must  be  present  a  spiritual  quality, 
a  sense  of  devotion  to  service,  consecration  to  the  noble  and  ex- 
alted task  confronting  the  organism.  Motives  must  be  high  and 
efforts  measured  by  standards  proportionate  to  the  character  of 
the  task.  There  must  be  little  thought  of  self  and  great  con- 
sideration for  others.  Without  this  quality  the  system  may  be- 
come ponderous  and  mechanical  to  such  a  degree  that  the  whole 
purpose  may  be  missed. 

e.  It  should  be  noted  that  the  educational  organism, 
like  the  human,  makes  no  distinct  division  of  labor.  To  the 
degree  to  which  it  becomes  a  part,  distinct  from  the  rest,  the 
central  organisation  fails  in  its  task.  It  cannot  merely  give  or- 
ders to  supervisors  and  teachers  alike.  Much  of  the  best  work 
will  come  when  teachers  and  supervisors  themselves,  either  as 
individuals  or  groups,  investigate  their  problems,  come  to  certain 
results,  and  communicate  their  findings  to  all  others. 

f.  The  illustration  of  an  organism  does  not  apply  sim- 
ply to  a  nation-wide,  centralized  organisation  of  the  Christian 
schools  of  China,  or  of  itself  imply  the  need  of  such  an  organisa- 
tion.    The  principles  apply  as  well  to  the  work  of  a  single  school, 


138  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

a  regional  unit,  or  to  a  uniform  system  of  schools,  nation-wide 
in  extent.  The  thesis  is  that  no  school  or  system  is  effective, 
which  does  not  have  some  central  organisation  to  determine  scien- 
tifically and  thoroughly  the  purpose  of  the  work  and  the  means 
and  administrative  details  necessary  to  carry  it  out ;  teachers  so 
well  trained  that  these  ideas  may  be  efficiently  carried  to  the  pu- 
pils; supervisory  forces  so  skilled  as  to  form  an  effective  means 
of  communication  between  the  two;  and  a  spirit  of  consecration 
and  devotion  to  so  noble  a  task  that  the  work  will  not  fail. 


II.    The  Present  Status  of  Christian  Schools  in  China 

227.  Compared  with  this  ideal,  the  system  of  Christian  edu- 
cation in  China  presents  a  decided  contrast.  There  is  no  well- 
defined  policy  as  to  the  purpose  of  the  education  given  or  satis- 
factory scientific  adaptation  to  the  needs,  either  of  the  China  of 
to-day  or  the  China  of  to-morrow.  Too  often  the  curriculum  is 
only  the  English,  Canadian,  or  American  transplanted,  imported 
duty  free,  perpetuating  in  a  totally  different  land  the  mistakes 
and  successes  of  the  home  country.  There  is  neither  sufficient 
agreement  as  to  the  content  and  order  of  the  curriculum,  nor 
adequate  scientific  investigation  regarding  it ;  nor  careful  study 
of  text  books  or  other  materials  of  instruction,  nor  any  great 
likelihood  that  the  near  future  will  see  real  answers  to  the  admin- 
istrative questions  raised  above. 

228.  The  teachers  have  had  little  professional  training.  Ac- 
cording to  the  data  in  the  survey  of  the  fifty  institutions  claiming 
to  offer  training  for  primary  school  teachers,  only  ten  enroll  as 
many  as  twenty  students  in  these  courses,  and  there  are  less  than 
eight  hundred  Chinese  men  and  women  receiving  professional 
training  for  teaching  in  Christian  primary  schools.  Consider- 
ing that  there  are  nine  thousand  teachers  in  Christian  primary 
schools ;  that  it  is  estimated  that  three  thousand  leave  the  profes- 
sion each  year ;  that  two  hundred  is  a  liberal  estimate  of  the 
trained  graduates  who  will  teach;  it  is  clear  that  the  untrained 
teachers  entering  the  primary  schools  of  Christian  churches  out- 


THE  EDUCATION  OF  TEACHERS  I39 

number  the  trained  fifteen  to  one.  If  one  were  to  make  liberal 
allowance  for  longer  tenure  for  trained  than  for  untrained  teach- 
ers, the  fact  still  remains  that  most  children  in  Christian  schools 
are  receiving  their  first  schooling  from  teachers  who  have  had 
no  professional  training  for  their  task.  Figures  from  three  prov- 
inces indicate  that  not  over  two  per  cent  of  the  Christian  ele- 
mentary school  teachers  claim  any  sort  of  normal  school  prepara- 
tion for  their  work.     (A.  A.  Bulloch  in  the  Survey.) 

The  seriousness  of  these  conditions  is  more  evident  when 
it  is  considered  that  only  nine  of  the  twenty-one  provinces  have 
any  definite  Christian  normal  schools  within  their  boundaries,  and 
that  only  twenty-five  per  cent  of  the  missionary  societies  at  work 
in  China  are  contributing  anything  to  the  support  of  systematic 
teacher  training. 

229.  Nor  is  the  preparation  for  middle  school  teaching  much 
more  adequate.  All  told  there  are  only  one  hundred  and  sixty 
students  definitely  enrolled  in  professional  teacher  training  work 
in  junior  and  senior  colleges,  an  average  of  eight  to  an  institu- 
tion. The  courses  are  commonly  without  vocational  point,  oppor- 
tunities for  practice  are  few,  and  too  often  as  in  America,  gradua- 
tion from  college  is  confused  with  preparation  to  teach. 

230.  The  contrast  between  mission  and  government  education 
as  regards  teacher  training  is  so  great  as  to  defy  explanation. 
There  are  over  two  hundred  government  normal  schools  with 
about  one  hundred  and  fifty  students  each,  and  nearly  three  hun- 
dred and  fifty  lower  schools  having  short  courses  preparatory  to 
village  school  teaching.  When  one  considers  the  number  of 
Christian  primary  and  middle  schools,  the  emphasis  that  is  placed 
upon  them,  and  then  notices  that  little  or  no  attention  is  paid 
the  problem  of  training  teachers  for  these  schools,  one  wonders 
what  the  future  will  be.  At  this  point,  American  mission  policy 
is  more  seriously  at  fault  than  the  British. 

231.  The  same  situation  exists  in  respect  to  the  training  of 
principals  and  supervisors.  Most  of  the  foreign  school  admin- 
istrators came  to  the  mission  field  without  specific  training  for 
school  administration,  and  most  of  the  Chinese  have  been  ap- 


140  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

pointed  with  reference  to  personal  qualities  rather  than  pro- 
fessional training  and  capability.  Of  late  years,  it  has  become 
common  to  make  use  of  the  furlough  for  professional  preparation, 
a  truly  commendable  procedure,  but  even  to-day  the  proportion  of 
trained  principals  is  not  large.  Supervisors  are  unfortunately 
rare.     This  has  kept  educational  ideals  behind  the  times. 

It  is  only  just  to  mention,  however,  the  remarkable  work 
which  the  China  Christian  Educational  Association  has  done 
through  its  general  office,  publications,  and  meetings,  and  the  serv- 
ice of  the  various  provincial  associations.  These  organizations 
have  brought  to  China  the  best  of  modern  theory  and  practice  and 
have  helped  to  coordinate  and  improve  the  work  in  the  various 
areas. 

232.  Even  more  important  is  the  striking  spirit  of  devotion 
and  service  which  is  manifest  in  every  school.  No  one  is  working 
for  pay.  The  nobility  of  the  task  is  everywhere  appreciated. 
This  compensates  in  a  large  measure  for  the  defects  noted  above, 
a  greater  compensation  than  one  would  suppose.  It  cannot  be 
appreciated  without  visiting  the  schools.  If  to  this  spirit,  which 
makes  a  fairly  effective  system  of  schools  at  present,  could  be 
added  professional  training  of  teachers  and  administrative  of- 
ficers, and  a  thorough  determination  of  aims,  methods,  and  pro- 
cedures, magnificent  results  could  be  secured. 

The  fact  that  these  defects  are  not  peculiar  to  China, 
that  to  a  greater  or  less  degree  they  may  justly  be  ascribed  to 
schools  in  all  countries,  does  not  prevent  us  from  wishing  better 
conditions  for  China.  Only  an  eflfective  system  of  schools  will 
realize  the  Christian  task  in  China. 

We  may  then  turn  our  attention  to  the  training  of 
teachers,  the  training  of  administrative  ofScers,  and  the  institution 
of  some  agency  to  determine  the  best  ideals,  practices,  and 
methods. 

III.    The  Training  of  Teachers 

233.  It  is  one  problem  to  provide  adequate  facilities  for  the 
proper  training  of  teachers,  it  is  quite  another  to  see  that  these 


THE  EDUCATION  OF  TEACHERS  I41 

facilities  are  used.  As  was  noted  above,  very  few  students  elect 
teacher-training  where  it  is  ofifered,  an  average  of  only  eight  to 
twelve  per  school  in  normal  and  middle  schools,  and  eight  in 
junior  and  senior  colleges.  The  rate  of  infant  mortality,  high  in 
China,  also  applies  to  normal  schools,  there  being  mourners  in 
several  cities  at  the  graves  of  incipient  teacher-training  institutions 
which  failed  to  live  to  maturity. 

Nor  is  it  strange  that  young  men  and  women  should 
hesitate  to  enter  this  field.  In  the  villages  the  life  is  hard.  Stu- 
dents who  have  been  taken  out  of  their  home  surroundings  and 
accustomed  to  a  higher  standard  of  living  find  it  difficult  to  re- 
turn to  the  discomforts,  hardships,  and  monotony  of  village  life. 
Salaries  are  small,  constituting  a  bare  living  wage.  When  the  re- 
tention of  position  depends  upon  the  approval  of  a  local  com- 
mittee, or  the  teacher  is  forced  himself  to  collect  a  part  of  his 
salary  from  the  parents  of  pupils,  tenure  is  somewhat  uncertain, 
and  rarely  do  teachers  have  the  advantages  of  pensions,  educa- 
tional care  of  families,  and  other  perquisites  that  are  a  part  of 
the  material  remuneration  of  a  pastor.  Students  selecting  a 
teacher-training  course  in  a  normal  school,  which  in  China  seems 
to  have  received  some  of  the  opprobrium  heaped  upon  it  in 
America,  too  often  find  it  difficult  to  enter  college  if  they  desire, 
thus  making  teaching  a  "blind  alley"  occupation.  The  normal 
school  is  also  considered  of  a  lower  type,  yielding  less  culture, 
than  the  usual  college  preparatory  school,  and  carries  with  it  a 
social  handicap  which  the  wealthy  refuse  and  the  poor  cannot 
afford  to  disregard.  These  disadvantages  coupled  with  the  Chi- 
nese practice  of  several  .members  of  a  family  jointly  supporting 
one  prospective  scholar,  with  the  hope  that  at  a  later  period  he 
may  become  a  financial  prop  in  return,  serves  to  turn  students 
away  from  the  poorly  paid  profession  into  one  of  greater  ma- 
terial reward. 

234.  Before  any  adequate  use  of  prospective  teacher  train- 
ing facilities  can  be  expected,  it  will  be  necessary  for  the  Chris- 
tian forces  at  work  in  China  to  attract  students  to  the  teaching 
profession,  either  by  securing  a  greater  spirit  of  service,  making 


142  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

better  conditions  of  work,  holding  out  future  rewards  for  the 
few,  or  reducing  the  period  of  preparation.  It  is  recommended 
that  definite  action  be  taken  upon  each  of  the  following  points : — 

a.  It  is  important  that  every  effort  be  made  to  develop 
the  spirit  of  service  in  students,  making  them  see  that  teaching 
is  an  exalted  and  noble  calling,  and  one  of  the  most  patriotic 
of  professions.  Just  as  the  evangelistic  purpose  of  the  missions  in 
the  past  has  built  up  a  system  of  schools  for  the  production  of 
evangelists,  so  that  same  aim  and  policy  now  demands  a  system 
of  schools  for  the  purpose  of  producing  teachers,  evangelists  of 
the  present  day;  and  just  as,  supplementary  to  this  system  in 
the  past,  it  was  necessary  to  hold  up  the  calling  of  the  evangelist 
as  a  career  of  great  service,  so  the  profession  of  teaching  should 
be  held  up.  It  is  important  that  a  nation-wide  campaign  for  the 
enlisting  of  teachers  be  started  without  delay.  A  Student  Teach- 
ers' Volunteer  Movement  is  needed. 

b.  It  is  important  that  teaching  and  preaching  be  con- 
sidered equal  so  far  as  dignity  of  service  is  concerned,  and  there 
should  be  as  much  honor,  dignity,  and  permanence  in  the  one 
office  as  in  the  other. 

c.  One  obstacle  to  entering  the  teaching  profession  is 
the  miserable  prospect  of  life  in  the  village.  Emphasis  should 
be  laid  upon  the  importance  of  increasing  the  pay  of  the  teacher, 
of  providing  living  quarters,  and  of  helping  the  teacher  not  only 
to  consider  his  mission  as  a  service  to  children,  but  to  recognize 
that  by  his  efforts  village  life  and  the  prospects  of  his  successor 
may  be  improved.  Pestalozzi's  Leonard  and  Gertrude  should  be 
a  model  for  the  village  teacher.  The  school  in  a  true  sense  should 
become  a  community  center. 

d.  Teachers  should  be  protected  from  the  whims  of 
ignorant  people,  whether  in  the  village  or  in  mission  bodies.  In 
particular,  they  should  not  be  exposed  to  the  difficulties  attendant 
upon  the  collection  of  their  own  salaries. 

e.  The  teacher  should  clearly  understand  that  the  high- 
est educational  positions  are  open  to  him  if  he  has  the  necessary 
character,   courage   and    ability.     Administrative    Boards    should 


THE  EDUCATION  OF  TEACHERS  143 

promote  to  positions  of  responsibility  as  many  from  within  the 
system  as  possible. 

f.  Village  teachers  of  success  and  promise  should  be 
assisted  to  higher  education.  A  person  will  bear  cheerfully  all 
sorts  of  hardship  if  only  there  is  a  prospect  of  better  things  ahead. 
This  calls  for  the  articulation  of  lower  and  higher  normal  train- 
ing, and  the  admission  of  normal  students  to  college  on  an  equal- 
ity with  graduates  from  other  types  of  schools. 

g.  While  the  government  has  found  that  the  practice  of 
giving  free  tuition,  room,  and  food  to  prospective  teachers  in 
training,  succeeds  in  filling  teacher  training  schools  with  students, 
it  is  doubtful  whether  the  Christian  forces  should  adopt  this 
procedure.  It  would  probably  be  better  to  spend  this  money  in 
increasing  salaries  of  teachers  in  service.  On  the  other  hand, 
tuition  charges  should  be  low,  equipment  simple,  and  normal 
schools  as  near  the  destination  of  the  product  as  possible. 


IVy  Preparation  of  Primary  School  Teachers 

*  235.  The  student  preparing  to  teach  in  the  primary  school 
should  receive  specific  and  definite  preparation  for  his  work. 
He  should  become  thoroughly  familiar  with  the  usual  primary 
school  subjects  and  be  able  to  step  into  any  class  in  the  school 
and  teach  it  well.  In  addition  he  should  be  familiar  with  the 
problems  of  health  and  hygienic  living,  able  to  teach  at  least  one 
vocational  subject,  and  competent  in  religious  teaching  and  guid- 
ance. He  should  be  so  trained  as  to  become  interested  in  his 
community,  able  to  understand  its  problems  and  as  a  future  com- 
munity leader,  ambitious  to  advance  the  standard  of  life.  This 
difficult  educational  task  requires  distinct  preparation  which  can- 
not be  expected  as  the  by-product  of  some  other  type  of  endeavor. 
236.  The  need  for  trained  teachers  of  this  high  type  will  not 
be  met  until  the  Christian  forces  at  work  in  China  establish  a 
sufficient  number  of  first-class  normal  schools.  These  schools 
ideally  should  have  the  following  standards: 


144  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

a.  Location. — The  size  of  the  city  is  not  important,  but 
it  would  be  advantageous  to  be  close  to  several  village  schools 
Eind  a  city  primary  school. 

b.  Expense. — This  should  be  kept  as  low  as  possible, 
with  moderate  tuition  fees,  simple  quarters  and  food,  equipment 
that  is  not  elaborate  so  that  students  will  not  be  taken  too  far 
from  the  conditions  of  life  to  which  they  will  return. 

c.  Faculty. — Every  member  of  the  faculty  should  be 
familiar  with  and  interested  in  the  primary  school.  Those  who 
are  in  charge  of  the  specific  training  should  have  received  ad- 
v^anced  training  themselves. 

d.  Practice  teaching. — There  should  be  ample  facilities 
for  practice  teaching  throughout  the  course. 

e.  Curriculum. — The  prime  emphasis  should  be  on  the 
subjects  commonly  included  in  the  primary  school  curriculum  in 
more  complete  form  and  wider  application.  The  plan  of  the 
professionalized  subject  matter  course  should  be  followed.  The 
professor  should  not  only  cover  the  subject  matter  itself,  but, 
realizing  that  the  student  before  him  is  later  to  become  a  teacher, 
the  treatment  should  be  so  modified  as  to  make  it  more  readily 
taught.  There  should  be  special  work  dealing  with  problems  of 
health,  religious  instruction,  vocational  guidance,  industrial  train- 
ing, the  school  as  a  community  center,  the  enjoyment  of  life  and 
the  proper  use  of  periods  of  leisure,  and  good  manners. 

f.  Stud  cut  life. — The  Christian  attitude  to  life  being 
important  as  a  part  of  the  personality  of  the  prospective  teacher, 
the  school  life  of  the  student  should  exemplify  this. 

g.  Professional  zvork. — The  work  in  education  should 
be  professional  rather  than  formal,  and  so  far  as  possible  con- 
nected with  practice  teaching. 

h.  Sex  of  students. — Ordinarily  there  should  be  sepa- 
rate schools  for  men  and  women,  but  with  proper  supervision  and 
preparation,  the  use  of  separate  hostels  for  men  and  women  might 
make  coeducation  advantageous. 

i.  Kindergarten  training. — Certain  of  these  schools 
should  specialize  in  training  young  women  for  positions  in  kinder- 


THE  EDUCATION  OF  TEACHERS  145 

gartens.     The  kindergarten  is  growing  in  importance  in  the  Chris- 
tian scheme  of  education,  and  serves  a  real  need. 

j.  Grade. — This  school  should  be  of  the  grade  of  a 
senior  middle  school.  This  means  that  the  student  will  receive 
three  years  of  general  preparation  in  the  junior  middle  school  in 
addition  to  six  years  in  the  primary  school  before  taking  three 
years  of  professional  preparation.  This  would  presuppose  about 
half  of  the  work  outlined  in  the  normal  course  suggested  in  the 
Educational  Review,  Vol.  IX,  No.  4,  p.  352,  allowing  more  time 
for  practice  teaching  and  vocational  training. 

237.  It  will  be  difficult  for  the  Christian  forces  at  work 
in  China  to  establish  even  one  school  of  this  type  at  present.  The 
faculty  is  not  available,  particularly  along  vocational  lines.  Ac- 
cordingly it  is  recommended  that  for  a  few  years  at  least  the 
school  give  only  two  years  of  preparation  beyond  the  junior  mid- 
dle school;  and  that  the  Mission  Boards  concentrate  their  efforts 
in  a  few  schools  strategically  located.  It  will  be  wiser  to  have 
one  excellent  school  than  several  poor  ones.  Then  at  a  later  date, 
when  the  college  courses  in  school  supervision  provide  adequately 
trained  teachers,  the  two  year  schools  may  be  extended  to  three 
years,  and  new  schools  established.  It  is  recommended  that  these 
first-class  schools  be  provided  by  union  effort. 

This  normal  school  is  the  normal  middle  •  school  sug- 
gested in  the  Chapter  on  Secondary  Education  (Sections  167,  177). 

238.  Because  of  the  probable  scarcity  and  expense  of  schools 
of  this  type,  it  will  be  necessary  for  some  time  to  continue  offer- 
ing an  abbreviated  and  inadequate  normal  or  teacher  training  cur- 
riculum as  an  adjunct  to  the  general  middle  school  course.  It  is 
obvious  that  the  usual  addition  of  a  few  hours  in  pedagogy  to  the 
college  preparatory  course  will  leave  the  graduate  untrained  for 
his  post,  but  a  little  training  will  be  better  than  none  at  all.  As 
many  of  the  characteristics  noted  above  as  possible  should  be  in- 
corporated ;  and  the  time  of  one  teacher  should  be  given  exclu- 
sively to  this  work.  He  should  guide  the  students  in  their  choice 
of  subjects,  prepare  them  for  their  teaching,  and  supervise  prac- 
tice in  neighboring   schools.     Inasmuch  as  the  number  of   stu- 


146  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

dents  preparing  for  teaching  will  probably  be  small,  he  should  be 
able  to  give  his  students  much  personal  attention,  giving  as  much 
of  the  theory  of  teaching  as  possible  in  connection  with  practice, 
and  a  little  glimpse  of  the  problems  of  vocational,  technical,  and 
health  education,  and  of  community  leadership.  In  general,  it 
would  be  better  not  to  concentrate  this  work  in  the  last  year,  but 
rather  to  spread  it  over  the  last  two  or  three  years  of  the  course. 

239.  It  is  also  the  judgment  of  the  Commission  that  for 
several  years,  at  least  in  some  parts  of  the  country,  it  will  be 
necessary  to  offer  a  still  simpler  and  less  expensive  form  of  nor- 
mal training  to  prepare  teachers  for  the  village  schools.  This 
school  should  admit  students,  from  higher  primary  village  schools, 
who  show  promise  and  character,  who  are  above  the  average  in 
Chinese,  being  at  least  eighteen  years  of  age.  This  school  should 
strive  to  give  just  as  much  as  it  can  within  one  year;  be  located 
near  some  village  schools ;  have  simple  equipment,  and,  aside  from 
the  usual  work  in  Chinese,  should  do  as  much  of  its  work  in  con7 
nection  with  practice  teaching  as  possible.  This  should  be  con- 
sidered only  as  a  temporary  measure  to  meet  the  present  discour- 
aging situation.  The  school  should  be  extended  to  a  two-year 
school  just  as  soon  as  students  can  be  found  who  will  take  the 
course.  What  is  really  recommended  is  a  Mark  Hopkins  on  one 
end  of  a  log  and  a  few  students  on  the  other,  the  log  in  this  case 
being  a  village  school,  and  the  ]\Iark  Hopkins  a  teacher  or  two 
who  love  the  village  school  and  are  quite  competent  to  teach  in  it. 

V.    Preparation  of  Middle  School  Teachers 

240.  It  is  more  difficult  to  prepare  a  teacher  for  a  posi- 
tion in  a  middle  school  than  for  one  in  a  primary  school.  He 
is  preparing  to  teach  more  advanced  students  and  the  subject 
matter  is  more  difficult.  He  will  be  continually  compared  with 
foreign  teachers.  It  is  fortunate,  therefore,  that  the  untrained 
middle  school  teacher  does  not  constitute  as  serious  a  problem  as 
the  untrained  primary  teacher  or  supervisor,  and,  inasmuch  as 
pay,  tenure,  dignity,  and  prospect  for  the  teacher  of  this  grade 


THE  EDUCATION  OF  TEACHERS  147 

are  on  a  distinctly  higher  plane  than  that  of  the  primary  teacher, 
we  may  demand  a  more  extensive  and  expensive  period  of  prep- 
aration. 

The  middle  school  program  (see  Chapter  on  Secondary 
Education)  contemplates  junior  and  senior  middle  schools,  each 
three  years  in  length,  the  former  providing  a  common  series  of 
courses,  cultural  and  prevocational  in  nature  similar  to  the  work 
now  given  in  the  last  year  of  the  higher  primary  and  first  year 
of  the  middle  schools,  and  the  latter  primarily  vocational,  pre- 
paring for  commerce,  teaching,  government  service,  agricultural 
and  industrial  pursuits  as  well  as  for  further  study.  This  plan 
necessitates  two  more  or  less  distinct  types  of  teachers,  those  giv- 
ing the  general  subjects  such  as  Chinese,  history,  science,  etc., 
and  those  giving  the  vocational  subjects.  The  first  will  be  more 
numerous,  being  found  in  both  types  of  schools ;  the  latter  will 
appear  only  in  the  senior  grade  of  school. 

241.  Preparation  for  teaching  in  these  schools,  as  in  the 
primary  schools,  should  be  distinctly  professional  and  separate 
from  general  training.  The  need  for  these  teachers  will  not  be 
met  until  the  Christian  forces  in  China  establish  a  sufficient  num- 
ber of  first  class  colleges  of  education  of  the  following  type: 

a.  Location, — Preferably  in  a  city  with  several  middle 
schools,  and  in  a  university  with  other  faculties. 

b.  Expense. — To  be  kept  as  low  as  possible,  with  mod- 
erate tuition  fees  and  a  system  of  loans  and  scholarships  to  help 
students  of  real  promise. 

c.  Faculty. — Every  member  of  the  faculty  to  be  an  ex- 
pert in  his  subject,  and  quite  as  well  trained  as  in  any  higher  in- 
stitution of  college  grade.  This  is  important,  since  the  success 
or  failure  of  the  teacher  depends  as  much  upon  thorough  knowl- 
edge of  the  subjects  to  be  taught  as  upon  any  other  factor, 

d.  Practice  teaching. — ^Ample  facilities  for  practice 
teaching.  Most  of  the  professional  work  should  be  linked  up 
with  this,  just  as  the  training  of  the  physician  is  linked  up  with 
the  hospital.  This  means  that,  with  few  exceptions,  a  practice 
school  under  the  direction  of  the  college  of  education  is  necessary. 


148  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

e.  Subject  matter. — Two-tliirds  of  the  student's  time 
should  be  devoted  purely  to  subject  matter  courses  in  a  few  lines, 
with  continuous  work  from  year  to  year,  l)uilding  upon  the  junior 
college.  The  professor  should  bear  in  mind  that  the  student 
is  preparing  to  become  a  teacher  and  references  should  be  as- 
signed, note  books  written,  outlines  prepared  and  term  papers 
demanded  that  at  some  later  date  may  be  used  to  advantage  by 
a  teacher  in  a  classroom.  To  illustrate,  the  professor  of  physics 
should  be  mindful  of  the  fact  that  the  student  at  some  later  date 
may  be  called  upon  to  teach  physics  in  a  small  middle  school  with 
poor  equipment.  He  should  show  the  student  how  to  use  home- 
made equipment  wherever  possible,  how  to  apply  principles  to 
local  problems,  and  indicate  the  relative  value  of  experiments, 
so  that  a  limited  budget  for  the  purchase  of  apparatus  may  be 
expended  in  the  wisest  manner  at  some  later  date.  The  major 
emphasis  in  subject  matter  should  be  upon  middle  school  sub- 
jects. Thus  there  should  be  general  science  as  well  as  physics 
and  chemistry,  courses  in  teaching  English  as  well  as  English 
literature.  The  subject  matter  course  professionalized  cannot  be 
too  strongly  emphasized. 

f.  Professional  ivork. — The  courses  in  education  should 
grow  out  of  and  into  real  teaching  situations  in  the  practice  school. 
In  general  they  should  be  directed  to  the  following  topics,  though 
some  of  them  may  be  covered  in  a  short  time :  the  purpose  of  the 
middle  school,  the  middle  school  as  it  now  exists,  how  pupils 
learn,  health  conditions  in  the  school,  preparation  of  material  for 
class  room  instruction,  how  to  teach,  how  to  test  and  check  up 
results,  the  function  of  the  teacher  in  the  administration  of  the 
school,  professional  ethics,  loyalty  to  the  principal,  the  curriculum, 
and  how  to  select  text  books  and  other  materials  of  instruction. 

g.  Student  life. — Inasmuch  as  most  middle  schools  are 
boarding  schools  there  is  a  large  educational  opportunity  in  the 
time  the  pupil  spends  outside  of  class.  To  this  end,  each  student 
preparing  for  teaching  should  be  encouraged  to  become  expert  in 
some  phase  of  student  activity  such  as  athletics,  debating,  boy- 
scout,  lite.ary  and  club  work.       The  college  should  make  every 


THE  EDUCATION  OF  TEACHERS  149 

efifort  to  provide  opportunities  for  student  activities,  not  neglect- 
ing religious  and  social  service  of  all  sorts. 

h.  Sex  of  students, — The  college  may  be  for  either  men 
or  women,  or  coeducational ;  or  colleges  for  men  and  women  may 
be  affiliated. 

i.    Grade. — The  college  should  be  of  senior  college  grade. 

242.  It  will  be  difficult  for  the  Christian  forces  at  work  in 
China  to  establish  any  great  number  of  colleges  of  this  sort  in 
the  next  few  years.  The  professional  faculty  is  not  available  and 
the  expense  will  probably  be  large.  Accordingly  it  is  recom- 
mended that  not  more  than  one  such  school  be  developed  immedi- 
ately, and  not  more  than  one  in  each  university  area  in  the  next 
few  years.  It  will  be  better  to  have  one  first-class  institution 
than  many  that  are  not  so  good.  This  should  provide  a  few  well 
trained  teachers  for  middle  schools,  who  would  look  upon  teach- 
ing as  a  permanent  profession. 

243.  Under  present  conditions,  not  many  students  will  select 
training  of  this  sort.  Until  teaching  conditions  are  bettered,  until 
prospects  are  more  attractive,  it  is  doubtful  if  so  long  a  period 
of  preparation  can  be  universally  demanded.  Accordingly  it  is 
recommended  that  junior  colleges  of  education  be  established,  to 
carry  into  practice  as  many  of  the  principles  outlined  above  as 
possible,  completing  the  work  at  the  close  of  the  second  year 
beyond  the  new  type  middle  school,  giving  much  the  same  pro- 
fessional work  in  these  years  as  is  suggested  above  for  the 
senior  college.  The  majority  of  middle  school  teachers  will  be 
prepared  in  schools  of  this  sort,  so  long  as  present  teaching  con- 
ditions continue. 

244.  The  college  of  education  and  the  junior  college  of  edu- 
cation, outlined  above,  should  meet  the  need  for  teachers  of  gen- 
eral subjects  in  both  junior  and  senior  middle  schools.  The 
training  of  teachers  of  commerce,  teacher-training,  agriculture 
and  the  like  is  more  difficult.  If  large  numbers  of  teachers  of 
the  vocational  subjects  were  demanded  annually,  it  would  be  wise 
to  recommend  colleges  of  commercial  teaching,  colleges  of  agri- 
cultural teaching  and  others  of  this  type;  but  no  such  numbers 


ISO  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

are  demanded,  nor  are  the  Christian  forces  financially  able  to 
support  such  an  ambitious  plan.  It  is  accordingly  recommended 
that  where  technical  colleges  are  established,  some  member  of 
the  faculty  be  appointed  to  care  for  the  teaching  of  the  tech- 
nical subject.  Thus  in  a  college  of  commerce,  it  is  suggested  that 
a  professor  of  the  teaching  of  commerce  be  selected  to  give  a  cer- 
tain amount  of  instruction  in  education  and  to  supervise  practice 
teaching.  Graduates  would  then  be  expert  in  their  subject  and 
would  have  received  some  professional  training  for  their  work. 


VI.    Teachers'  Certificates  and  Degrees 

245.  The  program  of  teacher-training  outlined  above,  while 
holding  the  present  standards  as  an  ideal,  recognizes  that  for 
several  years  at  least  a  shorter  period  of  preparation  will  be  the 
usual  thing.  The  normal  school  for  village  teachers,  the  normal 
school  five  years  beyond  the  primary  school,  and  the  junior  col- 
lege of  education  will  be  the  typical  teacher  training  institutions. 
To  some  it  will  appear  to  be  a  lowering  of  standards;  it  should 
rather  be  considered  as  a  change  of  standards.  It  has  not  been 
usual  in  other  countries  to  demand  the  same  length  of  training 
for  all  occupations ;  nor  should  China  demand  the  same  length 
of  training  for  all.  It  is  important,  however,  that  recognition 
be  granted  the  graduate  from  the  teacher  training  course,  regard- 
less of  the  fact  that  he  may  not  have  reached  the  stage  of  advance- 
ment of  the  middle  school  graduation  certificate  or  the  degree  of 
Bachelor  of  Arts.  In  this  connection  it  is  interesting  to  note 
that  the  degrees  of  Bachelor,  Master,  and  Doctor,  now  denoting 
certain  degrees  or  stages  of  advancement  of  training,  were  in 
their  origin  teachers'  degrees  or  certificates.  When  the  pupil  had 
studied  for  an  undefined  period  of  time,  and  in  the  judgment  of 
his  professors  was  at  last  deemed  competent  to  teach,  he  was 
granted  the  degree  of  Master  or  Doctor,  the  Latin  words  for 
teacher.  Sometimes  the  degree  of  Bachelor,  meaning  appren- 
tice, was  granted  to  students  not  quite  so  competent.     The  rea- 


THE  EDUCATION  OF  TEACHERS  151 

soning  was  from  the  task  down,  not  from  the  period  of  prepara- 
tion up ;  and  this  in  our  judgment  is  much  the  more  logical.  With 
this  in  mind  we  suggest  a  combination  of  the  degree  and  certificate 
plan  to  be  adopted  by  the  Christian  forces  at  work  in  China,  with 
certificates  for  certain  proficiency  and  a  degree.  The  suggestions 
which  follow  are  intended  only  for  illustration,  it  being  the  ex- 
pectation of  the  Commission  that  these  will  be  worked  over  by 
local  experts  into  a  plan  suited  to  the  psychology  of  the  Chinese 
teacher  and  the  conditions  in  China. 

a.  Qualified  teacher. — This  should  be  the  highest  de- 
gree, granted  only  after  two  years  of  experience  to  graduates 
of  professional  colleges :  the  first  grade  to  senior  college  gradu- 
ates, the  second  grade  to  junior  college  graduates.  It  should  be 
awarded  to  graduates  of  other  colleges  as  soon  as  in  summer 
school  or  other  study  they  have  completed  the  equivalent  of  the 
professional  courses  offered  in  the  colleges  of  education.  It 
should  be  valid  for  a  period  of  about  five  years  and  renewed  for 
life  upon  evidence  of  further  study. 

For  elementary  teachers,  the  same  conditions  should  hold 
good,  the  only  variation  being  graduation  from  the  normal  school 
instead  of  the  college  of  education.  For  some  years  the  five 
year  course  should  be  considered  standard. 

b.  Teacher. — This  degree  should  be  awarded  to  old- 
style  teachers  of  Chinese,  teachers  of  commerce,  agriculture,  and 
other  subjects  upon  examination. 

c.  Temporary  permit  to  teach. — This  certificate,  not  a 
degree,  should  be  awarded  to  any  teacher  upon  application  of  his 
superior  educational  officer,  enabling  him  to  teach  for  one  year 
only,  to  be  renewed  three  times  if  necessary.  It  should  not  be 
renewed  thereafter,  unless  the  teacher  has  shown  evidence  of  fur- 
ther study. 

d.  Village  teacher. — A  degree  specially  devised  for  the 
low  grade  normal  school. 

These  certificates  or  degrees  should  be  conferred  by 
suitable  authorities,  the  qualified  degrees  by  the  general  office  of 
the  China  Christian  Educational  Association,  the  others  by  the 


152  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

provincial  associations.     Each  should  be  worth  preservation  and 
exhibition,  and  should  be  conferred  with  ceremony. 


VII.    The    Training   of   Supervisors   and   Principals 

246.  Important  as  is  the  training  of  teachers,  the  strategic 
point  of  attack,  if  widespread  improvement  in  teaching  is  to  be 
effected,  lies  in  the  school  administrators  and  supervisors ;  and 
their  proper  training  is  a  matter  of  utmost  importance.  With  a 
constantly  changing  teaching  force,  and  an  altering  teaching  prob- 
lem, no  system  of  schools  can  adjust  itself  to  changes  without  a 
supervisory  and  administrative  force  trained  to  do  its  task  in  an 
effective  manner ;  and  when  so  many  teachers,  from  force  of 
circumstances,  must  for  years  to  come  begin  their  work  relatively 
untrained,  the  only  hope  is  to  have  them  trained  by  their  immedi- 
ate superiors  while  they  are  engaged  in  their  work.  It  is  also 
true  that  the  scientific  study  of  education  has  so  far  made  greater 
contributions  to  this  field  than  to  any  other  and  that  sufficient 
scientific  experiments  and  investigations  have  been  made  to  form 
a  satisfactory  basis  for  training  school  supervisory  officers. 

247.  It  is  therefore  recommended  that  besides  the  college 
referred  to  in  242  there  be  a  college  of  school  administration, 
accepting  for  entrance  graduates  of  junior  colleges,  preferably 
with  teaching  experience,  and  giving  courses  leading  to  the 
Bachelor's  degree.  This  would  presuppose  a  fairly  liberal  train- 
ing, some  teaching  experience  and  a  knowledge  of  most  of  the 
subjects  taught  in  the  lower  schools.  About  two-fifths  of  the 
student's  time  should  be  devoted  to  one  or  two  of  the  following 
fields  fundamental  to  educational  study ;  biology,  philosophy,  psy- 
chology, hygiene,  sociology,  economics  or  political  science.  The 
course  should  be  elementary  in  the  first  year  and  advanced  in  the 
second.  Two-fifths  of  the  student's  time  should  be  devoted  to 
a  thorough  study  of  school  administration,  including  the  experi- 
ences of  other  nations,  the  development  of  a  Christian  philosophy 
of  education  and  the  applications  in  Ciiina  to-day  of  the  most 
trustworthy  results  of  modern  investigation  and  research. 


THE  EDUCATION  OF  TEACHERS  153 

248.  Just  as  practice  classes  are  essential  to  the  training  of 
the  teacher,  so  practice  schools  are  essential  to  the  training  of 
the  administrator.  It  is  therefore  necessary  that  affiliated  with 
this  college  there  be  city  middle  and  primary  schools  and  a  rural 
system  of  education.  One-fifth  of  the  time  should  be  given  to 
practice  supervision. 

249.  Principals  and  supervisors  in  service  should  be  encour- 
aged to  come  to  the  college  for  shorter  periods  than  the  entire 
year  if  they  cannot  be. spared  from  their  posts  for  longer  time. 
Effort  should  be  made  to  arrange  courses  so  that  two  or  three 
months  in  residence  at  any  time  in  the  year  would  provide  some 
work  that  was  complete.  The  summer  session  should  be  very  im- 
portant and  in  all  probability  could  be  conducted  in  more  than 
one  place. 

250.  A  less  efifective  type  of  training  for  principals  may 
also  be  included  in  the  college  of  education,  and  training  for  pri- 
mary supervisors  in  the  junior  college  of  education.  The  first 
class  normal  school  recommended  could  also  give  some  special 
work  for  supervisors,  particularly  where  these  students  are  un- 
familiar with  English. 

VIII.    The  Advancement  of  Education 

251.  It  is  a  matter  of  fundamental  importance  that  some- 
where in  China  there  be  established  an  institution  primarily  for 
educational  research,  strong  enough  to  make  a  beginning  of  the 
study  of  the  whole  educational  field.  There  is  a  large  num- 
ber of  problems  that  need  investigation,  many  of  which  have  been 
investigated  for  other  countries,  but  never  for  China.  The  gen- 
eral aim  of  the  institution  should  be,  by  cautious  experimentation 
and  careful  thought,  to  discover  for  each  type  of  work  that  kind 
of  education  which  is  best  adapted  to  produce  a  community  that 
will  be  physically,  economically,  intellectually  and  morally  so 
strong  and  efficient  as  itself  to  be  able  to  leaven  the  life  of  China. 

252.  The  methods  of  work  should  embrace  the  philosophical 
attack   (the  careful  consideration  of  tangible  and  intangible  fac- 


154  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

tors,  their  analysis  and  synthesis),  the  comparative  attack  (the 
consideration  of  the  effects  of  total  educational  situations  in  vary- 
ing environments),  the  statistical  attack  (the  search  for  truth 
in  the  careful  study  of  present  tendencies  where  the  evidence  is 
tangible),  and  the  experimental  attack  (the  minute  study  of  the 
effect  of  one  variable  in  a  stable  and  unvarying  educational  situa- 
tion). Some  of  the  problems  to  be  solved  are  outlined  above. 
See  Section  226. 

253.  The  Institute  for  Educational  Research  when  fully  de- 
veloped will  be  expensive,  but  the  results  should  amply  justify 
the  expense.  No  great  expenditure  should  be  made  for  build- 
ings and  plant,  the  main  items  being  salaries  of  the  staff  and 
provision  for  publication  and  research.  A  few  advanced  stu- 
dents could  be  received  at  once  and  act  as  research  assistants.  No 
degree  below  the  Master's  or  Doctor's  should  be  given. 

The  peculiar  difficulty  of  the  proposed  institution  is  the 
faculty.  In  one  group,  almost  in  each  individual,  there  will  be 
needed  an  intimate  understanding  of  the  local  situation,  sympa- 
thetic appreciation  of  conditions  in  China,  and  command  of  spe- 
cific methods  of  investigation  and  research. 

254.  Because  of  the  difficulty  of  finding  the  men  competent 
to  make  up  such  a  faculty,  we  recommend  that  this  institution  be 
organized  slowly.  Once  funds  are  secured,  the  director  should 
be  appointed,  an  administrative  staff  organized,  and  quarters 
planned  for.  Certain  qualified  people  could  be  employed  at  once 
in  a  few  lines  and  a  small  number  of  research  problems  attacked. 
In  the  meantime,  measures  should  be  taken  to  train  the  future 
faculty.  Several  teachers,  Chinese  or  foreign,  whose  character 
and  promise  has  been  evident  in  their  work,  should  enter  into 
tentative  relations  with  the  Institute,  to  be  sent  abroad,  to  Eng- 
land, Canada,  the  United  States  or  anywhere  else  in  the  world 
where  certain  methods  of  educational  investigation  have  been 
perfected.  While  the  work  would  start  in  a  small  way  in  China, 
part  of  the  director's  time  should  be  devoted  to  watching  the 
progress  of  the  future  members  of  the  faculty,  holding  confer- 
ences with  them  and  guiding  them  in  their  work.     In  three  years 


THE  EDUCATION  OF  TEACHERS  155 

the  entire  group  could  be  assembled  in  China  for  continuation  of 
work  started  abroad,  and  from  that  time  on  results  could  be  ex- 
pected. 

255.  The  Institute  will  not  be  a  spectacular  institution.  Its 
quarters  will  be  modest,  and  its  results  meager  at  the  start,  but 
with  wise  direction  and  freedom  to  develop  unhampered,  in  five  or 
six  years  its  influence  in  Christian  education  in  China  should  be 
great. 

256.  The  physical  equipment  should  include  offices,  one  or 
more  experimental  schools,  and  if  not  located  in  a  large  city  with 
a  foreign  quarter,  housing  for  students  and  faculty.  Great  num- 
bers of  students  should  neither  be  expected  nor  allowed,  the 
quality  of  the  product  and  the  research  of  the  faculty  being  the 
objectives. 

257.  Once  the  Institute  is  a  going  concern,  it  could  well 
spare  a  part  of  its  energy  in  making  more  effective  the  college  of 
school  administration,  and  some  of  the  colleges  of  education  and 
normal  schools.-  But  its  main  purpose  should  always  be  research, 
not  teaching;  and  its  other  duties  should  be  incidental  to  its  main 
end. 

258.  The  results  of  the  work  should  be  carried  to  every 
school  in  China  by  means  of  close  affiliation  with  the  China  Chris- 
tian Educational  Association,  by  publication  and  translation,  by 
close  relationship  with  teacher  training  institutions,  and  by  sum- 
mer classes  at  various  places  in  China,  both  for  Chinese  and 
foreign  teachers  and  administrators. 


IX.    The  Training  of  Teachers  in  Service 

259.  With  provision  of  normal  schools  for  primary  teachers, 
professional  college  instruction  for  middle  school  teachers,  super- 
visors, and  principals,  and  a  research  institution  for  the  deter- 
mination of  wise  plans  and  policies,  it  will  still  be  many  years 
before  trained  teachers  are  found  in  all  schools.  Indeed  if  all 
teachers  were  trained  it  would  still  be  necessary  to  continue  train- 
ing because  of  the  changes  that  any  school  system  must  make 


156  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

to  maintain  its  lead.     For  these  reasons  it  is  important  that  ample 
provision  be  made  for  the  continued  training  of  teachers  in  service. 

260.  Every  teacher  should  have  supervision.  The  funda- 
mental reason  for  the  success  of  the  schools  in  the  Philippine 
Islands,  where,  despite  the  fact  that  only  ten  per  cent  of  the  teach- 
ers are  graduates  of  schools  equal  to  or  superior  to  middle  schools, 
the  class  room  work  has  point  and  vigor  far  beyond  one's  expec- 
tations, is  the  careful  system  of  supervision.  Not  only  is  there 
one  supervisor  for  every  thirty-three  teachers,  but  many  other 
schemes  are  resorted  to,  in  order  to  keep  the  teachers  informed 
of  the  best  practice  and  instructed  in  its  application  to  their  own 
class  rooms. 

261.  Teachers'  institutes  should  be  held  annually,  not  only 
for  village  teachers,  but  also  for  city  teachers  in  primary  and 
middle  schools.  The  work  should  be  practical,  arranged  with  the 
idea  of  its  being  easily  applied.  It  is  also  valuable  to  institute 
what  may  be  called  "model  classes,"  where  an  expert  teaches  a 
class  in  the  presence  of  several  teachers  whose  work  has  been  dis- 
missed for  the  day.  Too  often  the  teacher  works  in  complete 
isolation,  never  having  an  opportunity  to  see  the  way  in  which 
other  teachers  meet  the  problems  which  arise  daily. 

262.  Summer  schools  as  mentioned  above  are  of  great  worth 
and  central  authorities  should  follow  the  practice  occasionally 
found  in  America  of  encouraging  attendance  by  increases  in 
salary.  The  system  of  certification  outlined  above  would  also 
have  the  effect  of  stimulating  summer  session  attendance. 

The  possibilities  of  correspondence  study  should  be  in- 
vestigated. A  first-class  correspondence  school  adapted  to  Chi- 
nese conditions  could  become  a  continual  source  of  inspiration  and 
guidance  to  teachers  in  the  remote  districts. 

X.    The  Training  of  Foreign  Teachers 

263.  The  wider  experience  and  better  training  of  foreign 
teachers  in  the  past  has  given  them  a  tremendous  advantage  over 
their  Chinese  colleagues ;  but  the  time  is  not  far  distant  when  they 
will  be  outstripped,  if  their  training  fails  to  point  directly  at  their 


THE  EDUCATION  OF  TEACHERS  157 

educational  task.  The  modern  science  of  education  is  rapidly  tak- 
ing form  and  few  mission  educators  are  prepared  to  take  advan- 
tage of  it.  The  Boards  at  home  have  failed  adequately  to  realize 
that  the  development  of  the  educational  phases  of  mission  work 
have  made  it  impossible  to  carry  on  the  Christian  educational  mis- 
sion by  men  and  women  who,  although  they  are  excellently  trained 
ministers  and  social  workers,  are  not  at  all  expert  in  education. 
The  most  intelligent  appreciation  of  modern  school  administration, 
and  the  best  adaptation  of  mental  tests  which  we  found,  were  not 
in  a  Christian  school. 

For  this  reason  it  is  important  that  in  the  selection  of 
candidates  for  missionary  service  the  Mission  Boards  give  due 
weight  to  strictly  professional  training  for  teaching  and  school 
administration. 

264.  Most  of  the  younger  missionaries  are  spending  consid- 
erable time  at  language  schools.  It  would  be  helpful  if  a  part 
of  their  time  were  devoted  to  receiving  some  belated  training  in 
methods  of  school  administration  and  in  an  analysis  of  some  of 
the  educational  problems  that  are  peculiar  to  China. 

The  correspondence  instruction  noted  above,  as  well  as 
the  summer  schools,  should  be  available  also  for  the  foreign  work- 
ers. The  isolation  of  the  mission  worker,  the  great  burden  of 
his  task,  and  the  pressure  of  daily  duties  tend  to  prevent  intellec- 
tual growth.  New  information  of  all  sorts  should  continually 
pour  into  every  mission  compound. 

265.  The  problem  of  the  proper  use  of  the  furlough  also 
needs  consideration.  Training  for  educational  work  should  be 
as  systematically  organized  and  as  widely  offered  as  for  evan- 
gelistic work. 

XI.    Summary  of  Recommendations 

(i*.)  Immediate  steps  must  be  taken  to  encourage  young 
men  and  women  to  enter  the  teaching  profession.  This  involves 
definite  consideration  of  a  Student  Teachers'  Volunteer  Move- 
ment; dignifying  the  teaching  profession;  improvement  of   the 


158  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

life  of  the  teacher,  local  administration  and  prospects ;  the  privi- 
lege of  entrance  to  college  from  normal  schools  without  penalty; 
and  lowering  the  cost  and  shortening  the  time  of  preparation. 

(2.)  One  first-class  union  normal  school  should  be  or- 
ganized and  several  schools  should  be  instituted  in  strategic  loca- 
tions to  give  two  years  of  special  training  beyond  the  junior  mid- 
dle school. 

(3.)  Education  classes  in  middle  schools  and  short- 
course  schools  for  village  teachers  should  be  instituted  wherever 
possible. 

(4.)  A  degree-certificate  system  for  standardizing  the 
training  of  teachers  should  be  adopted. 

(5).  There  should  be  established  a  high-class  senior 
college  of  education  and  wherever  possible  junior  colleges  of 
education  to  provide  teachers  for  middle  schools.  There  should 
also  be  teacher-training  courses  in  selected  technical  colleges. 
Eventually  there  should  be  one  senior  college  of  education  in  each 
higher  educational  area. 

(6.)  A  college  of  school  administration  should  be  es- 
tablished. 

(7.)  An  institute  of  educational  research  should  be  or- 
ganized. 

(8.)  Every  effort  should  be  made  to  train  the  teachers 
now  in  service. 

(9.)  There  should  be  better  provision  for  training  the 
foreign  staflf. 


CHAPTER  V 
THEOLOGICAL  EDUCATION 

I.    The  History  of  Theological  Education 

266.  The  first  missionaries  of  necessity  undertook  the  entire 
missionary  task.  They  were  evangehsts,  pastors,  teachers,  trans- 
lators, but  primarily  evangehsts.  Heavy  as  were  their  burdens 
and  perplexing  as  were  their  problems  their  tasks  were  simple 
as  compared  with  the  program  of  the  modern  missionary. 

As  fields  opened  up  and  work  developed  these  mission- 
aries needed  helpers.  They  selected  the  most  promising  and 
devoted  men  and  women  of  their  limited  group,  gave  them  some 
personal  training  and  sent  them  out  to  repeat  the  message  which 
they  had  received.     This  was  the  beginning  of  a  native  ministry. 

267.  The  early  constituency  of  the  church  in  nearly  all  mis- 
sionary lands  has  of  necessity  been  from  among  the  poorer  and 
lower  classes  of  society.  Hence  the  early  workers  were  of  neces- 
sity men  and  women  of  limited  training.  Nevertheless  they  were 
indispensable  to  the  work,  they  accomplished  a  great  deal,  and 
much  of  the  success  of  to-day  can  be  attributed  to  their  faithful 
labors. 

268.  As  the  work  developed  and  the  missionaries  felt  an  in- 
creasing need  of  helpers,  the  missions,  independently  of  each 
other,  opened  Bible  training  schools  to  give  these  assistants  the 
rudiments  of  education.  This  education  was  usually  of  a  most 
limited  character  as  there  had  been  little  previous  preparation. 
This  was  the  beginning,  however,  of  an  educated  ministry.  The 
changing  conditions  of  each  successive  period  have  necessitated  an 
improvement  in  the  type  of  education.     There  has  been  a  constant 

159 


i6o  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

evolution  from  those  first  rudimentary  training  classes  to  the 
theological  institution  accepting  only  college  trained  men.  The 
progress  of  fifty  years  has  been  marked  but  especially  the  progress 
of  the  last  ten  years. 


II.    The  Present  Situation 

269.  In  any  evolutionary  process  much  of  the  old  remains 
while  the  new  is  being  developed.  Theological  education  in  China 
has  retained  the  types  of  school  developed  at  practically  every 
stage  of  the  progress.  There  are  still  places  where  a  single  mis- 
sionary is  teaching  a  little  group  of  Chinese  who  have  had  no 
educational  background  a  few  things  which  he  regards  as  essen- 
tial for  a  worker  in  the  Kingdom,  and  sending  them  out  as  heralds 
of  the  good  news.  There  are  Bible  schools  which  have  risen  but 
little  higher  and  are  content  to  train  men  who  have  had  almost  no 
education.  There  are  also  Bible  schools,  well  organized  and 
staffed,  giving  a  good  education;  theological  colleges  training  the 
graduates  of  middle  schools ;  seminaries  training  only  college  men ; 
and  schools  that  are  attempting  both  tasks.  There  are  also  Bible 
schools  of  many  grades  for  the  training  of  women  workers. 

270.  It  is  not  easy  to  classify  the  various  institutions  for 
men,  but  we  venture  to  divide  them  into  four  groups. 

a.  Theological  colleges  whose  students  have  all  had  two 
years  or  more  of  college  work  before  entrance.  There  are  five 
institutions  in  this  group. 

b.  Theological  institutions  which  admit  both  college  stu- 
dents and  middle  school  graduates  or  the  latter  only.  In  this 
group  there  are  three  schools. 

c.  Institutions  combining  a  theological  school  and  a 
Bible  school.     Five  institutions  may  be  ranked  in  this  group. 

d.  Bible  schools  of  various  grades  which  train  men  who, 
for  the  most  part  have  had  little  previous  education.  There  are 
about  seventy-one  schools  in  this  group. 

271.  The  schools  for  training  women  may  be  divided  into 
three  classes.     There  are  about  thirty-eight  of  these  schools,  but 


THEOLOGICAL  EDUCATION  i6i 

the  information  at  hand  is  so  hmited  that  it  is  impossible  to  give 
any  accurate  data  regarding  the  number  in  each  class. 

a.  Bible  schools  which  admit  the  graduates  of  middle 
schools  only.     There  is  one  school  in  this  class. 

b.  Bible  schools  which  admit  women  of  limited  educa- 
tion and  train  them  for  evangelistic  and  other  work. 

c.  Schools  giving  a  limited  amount  of  education  to  ma- 
ture women  with  little  educational  background.  These  schools 
are  usually  classified  with  Bible  schools  but  should  not  be  so 
grouped  as  their  purpose  is  different, 

272.  A  surprising  amount  of  interdenominational  and  inter- 
national cooperation  has  been  secured  in  the  field  of  theological 
education.  Of  the  thirteen  theological  schools  all  except  three  are 
the  result  of  interdenominational  cooperation.  This  is  the  last 
field  in  which  the  churches  at  home  would  have  dreamed  of  union 
or  regarded  it  at  all  possible.  It  is  a  great  tribute  to  the  states- 
manship of  the  missionary  that  he  has  seen  the  possibility  of  this 
movement. 

273.  It  is  when  we  face  the  matter  of  enrollment  in  these 
schools  that  we  discover  the  most  disturbing  situation.  In  the 
eight  institutions  conducting  courses  for  students  of  college  grade 
(Section  270  a,  b)  there  were  enrolled  last  session  ninety-six  men. 
In  the  eight  institutions  requiring  middle  school  graduation  (Sec- 
tion 270  b,  c)  there  were  two  hundred  and  ninety-five.  These 
figures  must  cause  serious  thought  on  the  part  of  all  who  seek  the 
advance  of  the  Christian  movement  in  China.  How  significant  it  is 
that  in  all  the  Protestant  Christian  schools  combined,  only  ninety- 
six  men  of  college  grade  were  preparing  for  the  ministry,  an  aver- 
age of  thirty-two  available  each  year.  This  showing  is  most  signifi- 
cant against  the  background  of  the  400,000,000  to  be  evangelized 
or  the  estimated  375,000  to  be  nurtured  in  the  Christian  life.  Con- 
trasted with  the  efiforts  put  into  Christian  higher  education  the 
discrepancy  is  no  less  startling.  All  the  mission  colleges,  senior 
and  junior,  with  their  heavy  capital  investments  and  annual  bud- 
gets, their  large  administrative  and  teaching  forces,  their  absorp- 
tion of  time  and  energy  in  the  home  lands  and  on  the  field,  estab- 


i62  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

lished  primarily  to  supply  the  church  with  qualified  leaders,  are 
actually  after  all  these  years  sending  only  thirty-two  men  annually 
into  theological  training.  When  this  number  of  college  graduates 
in  theological  schools  is  compared  with  the  two  hundred  and 
ninety-five  middle  school  graduates  in  the  theological  schools,  the 
conclusion  would  seem  to  be  either  that  a  high  standard  for  the 
Chinese  clergy  is  not  desired  or  that  the  larger  part  of  the  avail- 
able material  is  not  considered  worthy  of  advanced  training.  The 
situation  is  only  slightly  relieved  by  the  addition  of  the  men  now 
studying  theology  abroad.  There  is  food  for  serious  thought  on 
the  part  of  all  those  who  are  cherishing  the  hope  that  China  may 
become  a  Christian  nation. 


III.    Present  Problems  Stated 

274.    The  growing  need  of  the  Chinese  church  for  a  more 
adequately-trained  ministry. 

a.  There  is  a  changing  order  in  the  Chinese  church, 
and  the  change  is  going  on  more  rapidly  than  many  of  those  who 
are  closest  to  the  problem  realize.  Whereas  until  recently  the 
gospel  has  appealed  mainly  to  the  less  intelligent  classes  the  door 
is  now  open  to  the  more  educated  people.  But  by  reason  of  the 
caliber  of  its  ministry,  the  Chinese  church  is  disqualified  to  meet 
the  situation.  It  is  not  difficult  to  lead  educated  people  to  the 
doors  of  the  church  as  interested  hearers,  but  there  are  few 
churches  which  can  hold  them.  The  desperateness  of  the  situa- 
tion is  reflected  in  the  fact  that  there  are  whole  missions  which 
have  not  as  yet  a  single  college  educated  minister. 

b.  The  wastefulness  of  this  policy  is  evident  in  many 
directions.  The  missions  are  spending  large  sums  of  money  on 
institutions  of  higher  education  for  the  purpose  of  evangelizing 
and  training  leaders.  Many  of  them  are  highly  successful  and 
hundreds  of  converts  are  won  every  year.  But  what  becomes  of 
them?  They  find  themselves  confronted  with  the  necessity  of 
attending  churches  whose  preachers  are  not  qualified  to  minister 
to  intelligent  people.     Every  year  there  return  from  abroad  scores 


THEOLOGICAL  EDUCATION  163 

of  well-trained  young  people,  the  product  in  a  large  part  of  mis- 
sion schools,  but  most  of  them  are  lost  to  the  church  in  China 
because  there  are  no  pastors  trained  to  meet  their  need. 

c.  Christianity  can  never  win  any  nation  until  it  wins 
the  intellectual  classes.  This  is  more  true  of  China  than  of  almost 
any  other  nation.  It  is  high  time  to  make  an  appeal  to  these 
classes.  The  demand  is  accentuated  by  the  intellectual  awakening 
which  is  spreading  all  over  China,  manifested  in  the  New  Thought 
Movement  and  other  similar  movements  which  are  gripping  the 
minds  of  the  educated  people.  The  missions  are  doing  a  splendid 
work  through  their  many  schools,  but  little  through  the  churches 
in  winning  the  support  of  this  increasing  intellectual  class.  The 
churches  are  Christianity's  weakest  asset  in  China;  and  this  is 
due  in  large  part  to  the  failure  of  the  missions  to  train  an  edu- 
cated ministry. 

d.  The  churches  will  gladly  accept  better  men  if  they 
are  made  available.  We  are  not  unaware  of  the  contrary  opinion, 
but  it  is  a  universal  principle  as  applicable  in  China  as  anywhere 
else.  It  has  been  demonstrated  beyond  question  in  the  province 
of  "Shantung,  for  example,  where  in  a  poor  section  of  China, 
cursed  with  floods  and  famines,  the  churches  are  unwilling  to 
put  up  with  a  low-grade  ministry.  Independent  churches  in  all 
parts  of  China,  uninfluenced  by  the  missionaries,  almost  invariably 
call  better  men  if  they  are  available  and  at  higher  salaries  than 
the  missionaries  have  thought  possible.  Give  the  churches  a 
chance  at  better  leadership  and  they  will  certainly  respond  to  it 
quickly. 

275.  The  difficulty  of  securing  a  higher  grade  of  men  for 
the  ministry  of  the  church.  This  is  one  of  the  most  perplexing 
problems  which  the  missions  have  to  face  and  its  seriousness 
should  not  be  overlooked.  The  difficulty  seems  to  be  due  to  sev- 
eral causes : 

a.  In  large  measure  to  the  standard  which  has  long  ob- 
tained. The  missions  have  too  frequently  been  content  with  a 
low  grade  of  men.  The  idea  has  become  lodged  in  the  minds  of 
young  men  that  the  ministry  is  a  profession  for  this  type,  and 


l64  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

strong  young  men  in  the  colleges  have  come  to  look  upon  it  almost 
with  contempt.  It  is  going  to  be  exceedingly  difficult  to  overcome 
this  handicap. 

b.  To  the  fact  that  the  ordinary  conception  of  the  task 
of  the  Christian  minister  is  not  one  which  naturally  appeals  to  the 
Chinese.  The  minister  is  a  proclaimer,  an  exhorter,  and  there  is 
nothing  in  the  Chinese  experience  to  make  this  an  honored  calling. 
The  whole  conception  of  the  ministry  must  be  lifted  to  a  new  level 
before  it  will  appeal  to  the  best  young  men.  This  is  a  slow 
process. 

c.  To  the  failure  of  many  missions  to  give  proper  rec- 
ognition and  permit  sufficient  initiative  to  the  Chinese  pastor.  It 
is  impossible  to  shut  our  eyes  to  the  fact  that  many  missionaries 
have  desired  to  keep  the  control  of  the  churches  in  their  own 
hands,  without  doubt  because  of  their  feeling  that  the  Chinese  are 
not  qualified  for  responsibility.  This  has  been  the  universal  com- 
plaint from  the  Chinese  leaders.  More  recognition  must  precede 
any  large  accession  to  the  ranks  of  the  Christian  ministry. 

d.  To  the  traditional  grade  of  instruction  in  theology, 
wiiich  in  most  institutions  has  necessarily  been  below  that  of  the 
college.  This  has  not  been  hidden  from  the  mind  of  the  college 
student,  who  has  naturally  hesitated  to  pursue  a  course  which  he 
recognized  as  inferior  to  that  which  he  was  completing.  There 
is  only  one  corrective  for  this  situation,  heroic  but  necessary. 
Schools  of  the  lower  grade  must  be  divorced  from  schools  of  the 
higher. 

e.  In  large  measure,  the  largest  perhaps,  to  the  meager 
compensation  of  the  minister.  This  is  a  problem  of  the  Christian 
world,  not  alone  of  China,  but  particularly  acute  here.  The  com- 
pensation of  the  average  minister  has  not  risen  much  above  the 
standard  wages  of  the  coolie,  where  it  began.  There  seems  to  be 
a  tendency  to  resent  the  desire  of  the  Chinese  for  more  adequate 
compensation  and  to  regard  them  as  mercenary.  The  attitude  of 
some  of  the  missions  is  doubtless  due  to  their  desire  to  spread  out 
their  slender  funds  as  widely  as  possible.  Instead  of  concen- 
trating on  a  limited  number  of  better  paid  men  they  have  chosen 


THEOLOGICAL  EDUCATION  165 

to  engage  as  many  men  as  possible  on  a  minimum  wage,  which  in 
many  cases  comes  close  to  being  a  starvation  wage.  In  other  cases 
it  is  due  to  the  desire  of  the  missions  to  hasten  self-support.  This 
attitude  can  not  fail  to  have  a  serious  bearing  on  the  question  of 
the  supply  for  the  ministry. 


IV.    The  Solution  of  the  Problems 

No  speedy  cure  of  this  situation  can  be  offered.  Only 
by  a  slow  process  of  evolution  can  the  desired  change  be  brought 
about.  The  way  to  begin,  however,  is  to  begin,  and  we  desire  to 
offer  certain  specific  recommendations. 

276.  The  problem  of  the  ministry  can  never  be  solved  until 
the  questions  of  recognition  and  compensation  are  adjusted.  We 
appreciate  the  fact  that  the  independent  churches  themselves  de- 
termine the  salaries  of  their  pastors,  yet  it  can  not  be  questioned 
that  they  are  still  susceptible  to  the  influence  of  the  missionary. 
We  recommend  that  the  Christian  forces  inaugurate  a  definite  pol- 
icy whereby  they  shall  assure  to  their  prospective  graduates  in 
theology  positions  of  influence  and  independence  wherein  they 
shall  have  a  standing  equal  to  that  of  missionaries  of  equal  train- 
ing, shall  have  full  opportunity  to  exercise  initiative  in  the  de- 
velopment of  their  churches  and  shall  receive  adequate  compensa- 
tion enabling  them  to  live  in  their  sphere  of  life  on  the  same 
standard  as  missionaries  live  in  theirs.  The  desire  for  an  ade- 
quate living  must  not  be  treated  as  an  unworthy  motive.  We 
would  not  inculcate  the  idea  that  the  ministry  is  an  occupation 
in  which  a  man  receives  a  compensation  equal  to  that  which 
he  would  receive  in  other  callings.  We  would  remind  them  that 
the  Master  whom  they  serve  "for  their  sakes  became  poor."  But 
"the  laborer  is  worthy  of  his  hire"  and  the  Christian  churches  in 
China  must  learn  that  their  ministers  deserve  a  compensation  which 
will  give  them  a  comfortable  living,  enable  them  to  devote  their 
whole  attention  to  their  work,  and  live  without  the  pall  of  poverty 
hanging  over  their  heads.  We  must  not  overlook  the  Chinese 
custom,  whereby  the  son  of  the  household  has  certain  responsibili- 


i66  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

ties  for  the  support  of  his  father's  family.  We  can  not  shut  our 
eyes  to  the  fact  that  the  young  man  has  to  make  his  choice  among 
three  professions  which  missions  have  exalted,  that  of  the  doctor, 
the  teacher  and  the  minister.  In  the  first  two  professions  the 
standard  of  compensation  is  distinctly  higher  than  that  of  the 
ministry.  It  is  not  strange  that  the  young  men  are  drawn  to  one 
and  not  to  the  other. 

One  of  the  churches  at  work  in  China  has  set  a  standard 
of  compensation  for  its  pastors  which  is  distinctly  higher  than 
that  of  all  others.  It  is  not  denied  that  this  is  the  church  which 
has  been  able  to  build  up  the  largest  group  of  well-trained  ministers. 

277.  The  inauguration  of  the  policy  which  we  urge  will 
doubtless  necessitate  the  dropping  of  some  men  of  lower  grade 
because  of  the  lack  of  funds;  but  as  has  been  demonstrated  in 
all  walks  of  life,  a  smaller  number  of  well-trained  men  will  accom- 
plish more  than  a  larger  number  of  poorly-trained  men.  We  be- 
lieve that  the  missions  must  begin  at  this  point  in  the  elevation  of 
the  ministry. 

278.  We  recommend  that  all  standard  theological  schools 
and  departments  set  as  their  minimum  requirement  for  admission 
the  completion  of  a  full  junior  college  course  and  that  they  ar- 
range a  course  of  theological  study  of  variable  length,  in  general 
not  less  than  three  years.  The  course  should  be  so  constructed 
that  a  man  may  finish  a  certain  definite  amount  of  preparation  at 
the  end  of  each  year.  On  the  successful  completion  of  the  sec- 
ond year's  work  he  should  be  entitled  to  the  degree  of  A.  B.,  and 
at  the  end  of  the  fourth  year's  work  to  the  degree  of  B.  D.  Prep- 
aration for  the  ministry  should  be  the  determining  factor  in  the 
selection  of  the  subjects  for  this  course,  but  it  should  include 
much  work  of  general  cultural  value. 

We  have  a  strong  conviction  that  an  adequate  training  is 
essential  to  the  type  of  ministry  needed  in  China.  On  the  other 
hand;  we  wish  to  leave  no  doubt  that  we  are  concerned  first  of 
all  with  the  spirit  and  character  of  the  men  who  are  to  enter 
this  calling.  Unless  they  feel  strongly  the  call  of  God  to  min- 
ister to  their  fellow  men  they  will  not  be  able  successfully  to 


THEOLOGICAL  EDUCATION  167 

offer  the  cup  of  cold  water  in  His  name.  Unless  they  are  men 
whose  character  and  life  reflect  the  beauty  and  glory  of  Christ 
they  will  not  turn  many  to  righteousness.  It  will  be  as  true  in 
the  Orient  as  in  the  Occident  that  only  those  men  who  are  actuated 
by  the  highest  motives,  whose  characters  have  been  thoroughly 
transformed,  who  are  filled  with  the  Spirit  of  God,  can  become 
good  ministers  of  Jesus  Christ.  These  are  the  men  for  whom 
we  covet  the  highest  education. 

279.  We  recommend  that  the  theological  schools  be  disso- 
ciated from  all  departments  open  to  students  who  have  not  com- 
pleted the  junior  college  course  and  that  the  preparation  of  these 
men  be  left  to  institutions  located  elsewhere.  Courses  of  markedly 
different  degrees  ought  not  to  be  given  on  the  same  campus.  In 
case  the  institution  feels  an  obligation  which  it  can  not  escape  to 
train  also  the  men  of  lower  grade,  these  students  should  reside 
and  receive  their  instruction  in  a  different  compound.  This  will 
increase  the  burdens  of  the  instructors,  but  it  is  essential  in  our 
judgment  to  the  elevation  of  the  ministry. 

280.  We  recommend  that  the  theological  school  shall,  wher- 
ever possible,  be  a  part  of  a  university,  being  located  on  the  same 
campus  with  the  other  departments,  and  that  the  students  have  a 
real  share  in  the  university  life.  They  will  thus  have  the  advan- 
tage of  the  college  courses  and  their  presence  will  make  an  ap- 
peal for  the  ministry  to  the  other  college  students.  The  associa- 
tion of  the  students  in  other  departments  with  the  students  in 
theology,  whose  personality  and  grade  of  work  they  must  re- 
spect, will  have  a  decided  influence  in  leading  college  men  to  con- 
sider the  ministry  favorably.  This  policy  will  also  decrease  the 
cost  of  a  proper  theological  education  by  making  available  to  the 
student  in  theology  the  courses  in  other  departments  of  the  college 
which  are  essential  to  his  proper  training. 

281.  We  recommend  that  the  instruction  in  the  theological 
schools  be  partly  in  English  and  partly  in  Chinese,  assuring  stu- 
dents sufficient  mastery  of  English  to  enable  them  to  read  Eng- 
lish books  fluently,  and  sufficient  mastery  of  Chinese  to  make 
them  proficient  in  the  use  of  the  best  type  of  their  own  language. 


i68  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

In  this  connection  we  would  also  point  out  the  importance  of  hav- 
ing a  larger  percentage  of  Chinese  members  in  the  faculty.  This 
is  essential  to  the  best  training  of  the  ministry.  Moreover,  Chris- 
tianity must  be  interpreted  by  the  Chinese  themselves  before  it 
can  become  a  genuine  possession.  We  realize  the  difficulties  which 
the  schools  face  in  finding  men  of  the  right  calibre  who  are  suf- 
ficiently well  trained  for  these  positions.  It  will  be  some  time 
before  there  is  a  sufficient  number  of  men  qualified,  but  as  rapidly 
as  they  become  available  they  should  be  secured.  The  present 
method  of  appointing  teachers  in  our  schools  makes  it  difficult 
also  to  secure  the  appointment  of  these  men.  We  hope  that  the 
Boards  and  missions  will  soon  adopt  a  policy  whereby  men  may 
be  selected  for  the  faculties  of  our  schools  because  of  their  fitness 
for  the  particular  tasks  rather  than  because  they  are  available  from 
the  missionary  staflf.  This  will  be  a  great  step  ahead  in  all  our 
mission  schools. 

282.  There  is  need  in  China  of  a  careful  study  of  the  theo- 
logical curriculum.  Such  a  study  has  apparently  never  been  made. 
We  have  simply  transplanted  into  the  Orient  the  traditional  sys- 
tem of  the  Occident,  none  too  good  for  the  West,  certainly  not 
ideal  for  the  East.  A  thorough  first-hand  study  ought  to  be  made 
of  the  exact  type  of  education  which  the  student  in  China  needs. 
Certain  obvious  facts  will  need  to  be  taken  into  account. 

a.  The  ministry  of  China  must  be  largely  a  rural  min- 
istry. The  people  live  mainly  in  small  villages ;  the  churches 
must  be  established  there  and  most  of  the  men  must  be  prepared 
to  minister  in  villages,  not  in  cities.  This  fact  in  itself  will  have 
an  important  bearing  on  the  character  of  the  curriculum, 

b.  The  task  of  the  minister  in  China  will  be  largely  one 
of  religious  education.  He  will  have  to  begin  at  the  bottom  in 
the  training  of  people  in  a  system  of  ideas  and  ideals  that  are  en- 
tirely foreign  to  them.  They  have  no  foundation  upon  which  he 
may  build.  He  must  create  it.  At  present  he  is  largely  a  pro- 
claimer  and  exhorter,  but  this  conception  of  his  task  must  give 
way  to  a  much  broader  one.  The  minister  in  China  must  be  first 
of  all  and  always  an  evangelist.     It  is  his  business  to  proclaim 


THEOLOGICAL  EDUCATION  169 

the  good  news  to  a  people  to  whom  it  will  long  be  a  strange  mes- 
sage. But  the  minister  must  also  be  an  educator.  He  must  lead 
his  people  to  an  understanding  and  adoption  of  a  system  of 
thought  and  of  life  that  is  foreign  to  them.  A  thorough  training 
in  the  principles  of  religious  education  must  therefore  have  an 
important  place  in  his  own  theological  education. 

c.  The  task  of  the  church  in  China  is  even  more  largely 
a  social  task  than  in  the  countries  of  the  West.  Christianity  can 
not  triumph  until  a  new  social  order  is  created.  The  Christian 
church  must  be  the  creative  agency.  The  minister  must,  there- 
fore, be  trained  to  become  the  leader  in  all  things  that  will  make 
for  the  transformation  and  Christianization  of  his  community. 
There  is  no  place  in  the  world  where  the  task  is  more  formidable. 
Only  a  man  who  is  thoroughly  trained  and  well  equipped  can  hope 
to  make  any  impression  on  this  ancient  system,  which  must  be 
permeated  with  a  new  spirit  and  virtually  transformed. 

d.  The  message  of  the  minister  in  China  as  everywhere 
else  must  come  primarily  from  the  Bible.  He  must  therefore 
know  this  Book.  But  because  he  has  not  behind  him  centuries 
of  interpretation  as  has  the  student  of  the  West  he  will  require 
more  diligent  study  of  the  Scriptures.  The  school  must  not  take 
too  much  for  granted.  In  its  curriculum  there  should  be  large 
place  for  this  study.  We  must  train  a  group  of  scholars  for  the 
church  in  China  and  there  must  therefore  be  some  men  thoroughly 
familiar  with  both  the  Testaments  in  the  original  tongues,  but 
most  of  the  students  will  need  too  much  work  of  a  more  practical 
nature  to  devote  themselves  to  a  study  of  Greek  and  Hebrew. 
The  Scriptures  arose  out  of  a  civilization  quite  as  different  from 
that  of  China  as  from  that  of  the  Occident,  and  the  young 
minister  must  be  taught  to  find  the  application  of  their  message 
to  the  civilization  of  which  he  is  a  part.     This  is  not  an  easy  task. 

These  and   other  principles  ought  to  underly  the  cur- 
riculum of  the  Chinese  student.     We  recommend  that  the  theo- 
logical schools  make  a  determined  effort  to  work  out  courses  of 
study  that  shall  be  peculiarly  adapted  to  the  situation  in  China. 
283.    The  number  of  theological  schools  now  established  is 


170  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

sufficiently  large  and  they  are  sufficiently  well  located  to  meet  the 
need  of  the  Christian  church  in  China  for  many  years  to  come. 
Effort  should  now  be  made  to  strengthen  the  institutions  already 
established.  We  desire,  therefore,  urgently  to  discourage  the  es- 
tablishment of  any  new  institutions.  In  fact  we  believe  that  wise 
use  of  mission  funds  and  forces  demands  closing  some  of  the 
institutions  already  established.  There  are  not  enough  well  quali- 
fied men  available  in  China  adequately  to  staff  the  schools  already 
in  operation.  All  emphasis  should  now  be  placed  on  bringing  the 
stronger  institutions  up  to  standard.  A  school  with  a  faculty  of 
only  three  or  four  men,  no  matter  how  well  qualified,  can  lay  little 
claim  to  being  a  standard  institution.  The  number  of  full-time 
teachers  required  in  institutions  of  different  types  will  vary,  but 
no  theological  school  should  be  satisfied  with  a  staff  of  less  than 
seven  full  time  men,  and  probably  there  should  be  one  school 
having  double  this  number. 

284.  In  view  of  the  importance  of  giving  a  practical  education 
to  the  Chinese  ministry  it  is  essential  that  the  teachers  should  be 
not  only  scholarly  men  but  men  of  practical  experience,  who  fully 
understand  the  nature  of  the  work  which  the  minister  in  China 
will  have  to  do.  Practical  experience  in  church  work  abroad 
is  not  sufficient,  since  the  conditions  are  so  different.  Whether  a 
man  should  have  had  a  term  of  service  as  an  evangelistic  worker 
before  joining  the  staff  of  a  theological  school  is  a  disputed  ques- 
tion, but  whether  he  has  or  not,  certainly  during  his  period  of 
instruction  he  should  have  constant  contact  with  the  active  work 
of  the  churches.  The  doctrinaire  will  accomplish  little  in  the 
theological  schools  of  China. 

Although  we  believe  that  all  members  of  the  faculty 
should  have  constant  experience  in  the  actual  work  of  the  churches, 
we  urge  that  each  institution  include  in  its  staff  one  man  not  over- 
burdened with  other  demands,  who  shall  undertake  the  super- 
vision of  the  extra-curriculum  and  practical  work  of  the  students. 
We  regard  this  as  most  important.  The  Chinese  minister  as  a 
rule  has  not  yet  learned  the  proper  use  of  his  time  or  how  to  under- 
take his  parish  work.    He  needs  the  constant  help  of  a  wise,  prac- 


THEOLOGICAL  EDUCATION  171 

tical  adviser.  Such  a  man  may  conceivably  become  the  most  im- 
portant man  on  the  faculty.  He  ought  to  be  most  carefully  selected 
and  his  appointment  ought  not  to  be  delayed  in  any  institution. 

285.  The  time  is  rapidly  approaching,  more  rapidly  we  fear 
than  some  missions  recognize,  when  men  of  limited  education  will 
not  be  of  great  value  in  the  ministry.  As  long  ago  as  the  Edin- 
burgh Missionary  Conference  a  strong  pronouncement  on  this  mat- 
ter was  made  from  China.  We  believe  that  the  missions  ought  now 
to  face  the  issue  frankly  and  bravely,  and  lay  their  plans  to  cease, 
at  an  early  date,  training  men  who  have  not  had  a  full  middle 
school  education.-  The  use  of  men  with  less  education  is  too 
wasteful  9f  the  precious  funds  entrusted  to  the  missions.  The 
continued  employment  of  low-grade  men  will  prevent  the  enlist- 
ment of  the  higher  grade  men. 

We  recognize,  however,  that  there  will  be  for  many  years 
a  place  for  high-grade  Bible  Training  Schools  which  shall  accept 
men  of  middle  school  education  and  for  the  present  men  of  equiva- 
lent education  under  the  old  system,  and  give  them  a  practical  train- 
ing for  their  work.  We  heartily  commend  the  high-grade  Bible 
schools.  We  wish  that  these  composed  the  entire  list  but  we  regret 
that  many  of  the  present  schools  are  of  very  low  grade,  serve 
little  purpose,  and  ought  to  be  abolished, 

286.  We  believe  that  there  is  no  justification  for  the  present 
number  of  schools.  How  can  one  small  province,  for  example, 
defend  the  maintenance  of  nine  schools  for  women,  seven  for  men, 
and  be  planning  for  the  establishment  of  others?  This  is  a  distinct 
misappropriation  of  workers  and  of  money  and  can  not  be  justified 
on  any  grounds.  The  present  number  of  seventy-one  such  schools 
for  men  ought  to  be  reduced  by  at  least  fifty  per  cent.  Concentra- 
tion in  this  field  would  enable  the  missions  to  maintain  a  limited 
number  of  creditable  schools  of  the  greatest  usefulness.  The  re- 
sults of  concentration  in  the  field  of  the  theological  schools  indicate 
the  possibilities  in  this  field  also.  If  it  is  practicable  to  train  the 
higher  grade  men  together  it  ought  to  be  possible  to  train  those  of 
lower  grade  in  this  way. 

In  this  connection  we  suggest  that  the  courses  of  study 


172  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

in  the  Bible  schools  should  be  so  organized  that  it  would  be  pos- 
sible for  men  to  come  for  two  or  more  years  of  study,  then  go 
out  for  practical  experience,  and  later  return  to  finish  their 
academic  work.  The  adoption  of  such  a  plan  would  enable  the 
missions  to  begin  at  once  the  raising  of  the  standard  of  their 
ministry. 

287.  In  the  field  of  women's  education  a  similar  policy  ought 
to  be  pursued.  The  missions  must  make  adequate  provision  for 
the  training  of  women.  As  women  acquire  a  larger  degree  of 
liberty  in  China  there  will  be  an  increasing  demand  for  their 
services  in  the  church.  But  such  women  ought  to  be  of  a  high 
quality  and  well  trained.  We  fear  that  the  present  plans  are 
neither  economical  nor  efficient.  There  are  thirty-eight  schools  in 
the  present  list  of  Bible  training  schools  for  women,  of  which  it 
is  impossible,  from  the  reports,  to  make  any  classification.  This 
list  doubtless  includes  several  schools  for  adult  women  which 
give  practically  no  training  for  evangelistic  work,  but  even  with 
this  discount  the  number  of  schools  is  probably  too  large  and  it  is 
evident  that  many  of  them  are  of  low  grade.  The  representatives 
of  some  of  these  schools  complain  that  their  chief  difficulty  is 
in  securing  an  adequate  number  of  competent  students,  "com- 
petent either  intellectually  or  spiritually."  Should  we  persist 
in  maintaining  schools  for  which  there  is  no  demand  ? 

288.  We  recognize  the  need  of  schools  which  take  adult 
women  and  give  them  a  bit  of  practical  education  that  will  make 
them  happier  and  more  useful  in  their  homes.  But  we  are  speak- 
ing here  only  of  the  Bible  training  schools.  We  strongly  recom- 
mend that  the  missions  cooperate  in  the  maintenance  of  a  much 
smaller  number  of  Bible  schools  of  higher  grade.  Those  schools 
should  be  of  two  grades,  one  for  graduates  of  middle  schools  and 
one  for  the  graduates  of  higher  primary  schools.  Others  should 
be  discontinued,  as  they  do  not  justify  the  investment.  In  addition 
we  believe  that  the  Christian  colleges  for  women  should  give 
definite  place  to  the  education  of  Christian  workers  among  their 
students.  This  may  necessitate  the  addition  of  departments  of 
religious  education  and  social  service,  but  the  investment  will  be 


THEOLOGICAL  EDUCATION  i73 

well  made.    An  increasing  number  of  the  women  graduates  should 
find  their  places  in  the  service  of  the  church. 

In  this  connection  we  recommend  that  theological  schools  be 
freely  open  to  women  on  the  same  terms  as  to  men  and  that 
women  be  welcomed  in  all  the  class  rooms.  We  do  not  expect  that 
a  large  number  of  women  will  desire  to  pursue  these  courses,  but 
it  should  be  made  perfectly  clear  that  the  Christian  church  in 
China  will  close  no  door  of  opportunity  to  them. 

289.  There  is  one  problem  which  the  missions  ought  to  face 
anew  with  seriousness,  namely  that  of  student  aid.  It  is  an  old 
problem  on  the  mission  field  and  it  is  perhaps  too  much  to  hope 
that  a  problem  which  the  churches  at  home  have  never  solved  may 
be  solved  in  China,  but  it  is  much  more  serious  here.  All  mis- 
sions will  agree  that  the  present  conditions  are  most  undesirable. 

It  is  clear  that  students  for  the  ministry  should  be  treated 
on  the  same  principle  as  any  other  students.  Discrimination  causes 
the  greatest  difficulties,  and  tends  to  the  deterioration  of  the  charac- 
ter of  the  students.  We  believe  that  scholarships  and  loans  are  dis- 
tinctly preferable  to  direct  gifts.  The  principle  of  rewards  on 
the  scholarship  basis  is  by  all  means  the  soundest  and  if  it  could 
be  adopted  would  aid  materially  in  the  solution  of  this  difficult 
problem.  This  is  probably  too  much  to  hope  for  in  the  immedJ^te 
future.  The  loan  system  would  stand  next  to  that  of  scholarships. 
It  has  been  adopted  in  America  by  one  of  the  largest  communions 
for  assistance  to  all  students  who  require  aid,  and  loans  are  made 
on  the  same  terms  to  all  classes  of  students.  The  loan  system  can 
hardly  be  put  into  efifect  in  China  in  any  drastic  way  until  the 
salaries  of  the  ministers  are  raised  so  that  men  can  repay  their 
loans  after  graduation.  We  earnestly  hope  that  a  change  in  the 
matter  of  salaries  will  soon  be  inaugurated  making  possible  the 
adoption  of  the  loan  system  in  place  of  the  present  system  of 
gifts  and  sustenance. 

290.  It  is  not  within  the  province  of  this  report  to  discuss 
at  length  the  methods  by  which  young  men  and  women  may  be 
induced  to  give  themselves  to  the  work  of  the  church.  We  can  not 
refrain  from  urging,  however,  that  every  legitimate  means  be  used 


174  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

to  lead  choice  young  people  to  dedicate  their  lives  to  this  service. 
This  problem  has  long  been  on  the  hearts  of  many  of  the  friends 
of  China  who  have  given  it  serious  consideration.  We  share  their 
conviction  that  there  is  scarcely  any  problem  facing  the  churches 
or  the  missions  which  is  more  serious  to-day.  We  would  suggest 
that  on  the  one  hand  we  need  to  make  constant  efforts  to  lead 
men  into  the  ministry,  and  that  on  the  other  hand  we  need  to  guard 
the  entrance  most  carefully.  It  is  difficult  to  secure  the  right  men. 
It  is  easy  for  the  wrong  men  to  slip  in. 

The  methods  of  various  missions  and  churches  differ 
widely  and  no  uniform  system  is  possible  if  desirable.  We  urge, 
however,  that  in  every  mission  each  candidate  be  examined  by 
a  committee  composed  largely  of  Chinese  before  he  is  sent  to  the 
schools  as  a  beneficiary  of  the  church  or  of  mission  funds.  Care 
at  this  end  will  not  only  weed  out  unworthy  men  but  will  tend 
to  raise  the  standard  of  the  men  entering  the  ministry. 


V.    Religions  Education 

291.  We  have  already  called  attention  to  the  importance  of 
religious  education  as  an  element  in  training  for  the  ministry.  We 
desire  now  only  to  emphasize  the  responsibility  of  the  theological 
schools  to  train  workers  other  than  pastors  in  the  distinct  field  of  re- 
ligious education.  It  is  only  recently  that  we  have  begun  to  work 
out  the  science  of  religious  education  in  the  western  world,  but  we 
have  gone  far  enough  in  our  experiments  to  realize  how  important 
it  is  in  the  development  of  the  church  life.  If  it  has  an  im- 
portant place  in  the  church  life  of  the  Occident  how  much 
more  important  it  is  in  the  life  of  the  Orient,  where  there  is  no 
Christian  background  and  so  much  work  of  a  fundamental  charac- 
ter to  be  done.  The  scientific  principles  which  have  been  worked 
out  in  the  West  must  be  applicable  in  the  East,  but  the  exact  form 
of  their  application  must  be  determined  here.  It  is  at  this  point 
that  the  theological  schools  should  make  a  great  contribution. 
Much  original  and  experimental  work  needs  to  be  done  in  this 
field   and   no   institutions  are   in   a   better   position  to   undertake 


THEOLOGICAL  EDUCATION  175 

this  task.  It  will  require  the  addition  of  thoroughly  trained  men 
to  the  faculty,  but  the  schools  can  scarcely  render  a  greater  service 
to  the  church  in  China  than  by  working  out  the  application  of 
the  scientific  principles  of  religious  education,  and  then  training 
selected  groups  of  men  and  women  who  will  devote  their  lives 
to  this  field.    China  needs  a  multitude  of  workers  of  this  character. 


VI.    Education  for  Social  Workers 

292.  There  is  another  field  of  education  which  the  theological 
schools  ought  immediately  to  enter.  There  is  a  demand  for 
thoroughly  trained  social  workers,  both  men  and  women.  This 
demand  will  certainly  manifest  itself  with  increasing  acceleration 
in  the  near  future,  and  is  one  to  which  the  Christian  school  can 
not  afiford  to  be  deaf.  One  of  the  most  impressive  phases  of  the 
new  life  in  China  is  the  interest  which  many  of  the  people  are 
manifesting  in  social  service.  Large  sums  of  money  are  being 
contributed  for  this  purpose.  Social  centers  are  being  organ- 
ized by  the  Chinese  themselves,  modelled  often  after  the  pattern 
of  the  Young  Men's  Christian  Association.  In  this  new  awaken- 
ing we  must  heartily  rejoice.  It  is  a  result  of  the  seed  which 
we  have  sown.  We  can  not  expect  that  the  missions  or  the 
churches  will  be  able  to  direct  all  these  activities  and  this  is 
not  to  be  desired.  But  the  church  can  train  the  workers  and  so 
put  the  stamp  of  Christianity  upon  the  work.  The  church  can 
not  afford  to  permit  this  opportunity  to  pass  out  of  its  hands.  It 
must  address  itself  to  this  task  energetically. 

The  institutions  best  equipped  to  undertake  this  training 
are  the  Class  A  theological  schools  and  the  Class  A  Bible  Training 
Schools  for  women,  provided  these  institutions  are  located  in  close 
proximity  to  Christian  colleges.  The  schools  and  colleges  in 
combination  are  already  equipped  to  give  much  of  the  necessary 
training,  but  other  courses  directed  primarily  to  practical  training 
should  be  added.  This  will  require  without  doubt  some  increase 
in  the  staff,  but  the  opportunity  must  not  be  allowed  to  slip  and 
unless  it  is  grasped  quickly  it  will  be  too  late.    These  institutions, 


176  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

permeated  with  the  Christian  spirit,  can  best  furnish  the  atmos- 
phere in  which  such  training  should  be  taken.  The  solution  of  the 
tremendous  social  problems  in  China  must  be  found  in  the 
activity  of  religious  factors  and  forces.  Moreover,  a  considerable 
portion  of  China's  social  workers  must,  for  a  long  time  at  least,  be 
the  Christian  ministers  and  these  men  must  have  a  training  that 
will  qualify  them  for  their  work.  It  is  a  great  challenge  which 
the  social  conditions  of  China  present  to  the  followers  of  Jesus. 
We  can  not  be  deaf  to  that  challenge. 


VII.    Summary  of  Recommendations 

(i).  Effort  should  be  made  by  missions  and  churches  to 
raise  the  standard  of  compensation  for  the  ministry, 

(2).  Standard  theological  schools  and  departments  should 
require  the  completion  of  a  junior  college  course  for  admission. 
The  course  should  be  of  three  to  five  years. 

(3),  Theological  schools  should  be  dissociated  from  all  work 
of  lower  grade  and  should  be  closely  related  to  universities. 

(4).  Instruction  should  be  in  English  and  in  Chinese. 

(5).  The  whole  question  of  the  curriculum  should  be  care- 
fully studied  in  the  light  of  the  needs  of  China. 

(6).    The  number  of  schools  should  be  limited. 

(7).  A  limited  number  of  high  grade  Bible  schools  should 
be  maintained  and  only  good  schools  should  be  continued. 

(8).  All  educational  facilities  should  be  open  to  women  and 
men  alike  on  the  same  terms,  and  Bible  schools  for  women  should 
be  strengthened. 

(9).  Religious  education  and  education  for  social  workers 
should  be  developed. 


CHAPTER  VI 
MEDICAL  EDUCATION 

I.    History  and  Present  Status  of  Medical  Education 

293.  Medical  work  in  China  dates  back  to  1827  when  Thomas 
Richardson  Colledge  landed  in  Macao  and  opened  a  dispensary. 
The  following  year  he  moved  to  Canton.  In  1835  Peter  Parker 
opened  the  Canton  Christian  Hospital  and  began  to  t  ain  Chinese 
to  act  as  his  assistants.  These  hospital  assistants  were  the  fore- 
runners of  the  Chinese  medical  profession. 

The  care  of  the  sick  was  so  natural  an  expression  of  the 
spirit  of  Christianity,  and  it  furnished  such  an  effective  entering 
wedge  for  the  presentation  of  the  gospel,  that  early  in  their  history 
the  missions  began  to  open  hospitals  and  establish  training  schools. 
The  result  has  been  a  system  of  Christian  medical  institutions 
which  has  spread  over  every  pa;  t  of  the  Republic  in  which  the 
gospel  is  preached.  Practically  every  mission  in  China  has  one 
or  more  hospitals,  and  at  many  points  the  medical  school  has 
followed  the  hospital. 

As  western  education  and  ideas  have  spread,  the  Chinese 
also  have  begun  to  take  an  interest  in  medical  work,  and  a  few 
hospitals  and  medical  schools  have  been  founded  by  them. 

294.  The  longest  step  forward  in  this  field  was  taken  when, 
in  191 4,  the  Rockefeller  Foundation  sent  its  representatives  to 
China  to  make  a  study  of  the  situation  in  regard  to  medical  work 
and  to  advise  the  Foundation  whether  it  should  undertake  to 
supplement  the  work  of  the  Christian  missions.  The  result  of  this 
and  successive  studies  has  been  to  lead  the  Foundation  to  under- 
take medical  work  in  a  large  way.     The  opening  of  the  Peking 

177 


178  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

Union  Medical  School,  and  the  appropriations  made  by  the 
Foundation  to  several  other  medical  schools  and  to  many  hospitals, 
have  marked  the  beginning  of  a  new  day  for  medical  education  in 
China. 

295.  At  the  present  time  there  are  twenty-nine  medical 
schools  of  various  grades  in  China.  Sixteen  of  these  are  under 
Chinese  control ;  eleven  are  under  foreign  direction ;  two  are  man- 
aged cooperatively  by  Chinese  and  Westerners.  Of  the  Chinese 
colleges  three  are  supported  by  the  central  government,  seven  by 
provincial  governments,  and  six  by  private  corporations,  one  of  the 
latter  being  a  college  for  women.  Of  the  foreign  controlled  col- 
leges two  are  maintained  by  foreign  governments,  eight  by  Mission 
Boards,  and  one  by  the  Rockefeller  Foundation  in  cooperation  with 
several  missionary  societies. 

296.  The  location  of  these  institutions  is  most  interesting. 
Twenty-two  are  located  in  the  provinces  which  border  on  the 
Pacific  Ocean.  Only  two  are  in  the  far  interior,  one  in  Hunan  and 
one  in  Szechwan.  The  location  of  the  Christian  schools  is  worth 
noting.  The  list  is  as  follows  :  Moukden,  Peking,  Tsinan,  Shang- 
hai, Hangchow,  Foochow,  Canton,  Changsha,  and  Chengtu. 

297.  The  exact  enrollment  of  these  institutions  has  not  been 
ascertained,  but  the  latest  reports  indicate  that  there  are  somewhat 
over  two  thousand  students  of  whom  ninety-five  are  women.  These 
ninety-five  are  divided  among  the  three  women's  colleges  and  the 
ten  schools  which  admit  both  men  and  women.  The  enrollment  in 
the  Christian  schools  is  reported  as  441.  With  one-third  of  the 
schools  we  are  educating  a  little  more  than  one  quarter  of  the  total 
number  of  students.  The  largest  schools  are  those  maintained  by 
the  government.  In  twenty- four  of  the  twenty-nine  colleges  there 
are  404  faculty  members.  This  gives  an  average  stafif  of  about 
seventeen  to  each  institution,  but  the  number  ranges  from  four  in 
one  school  to  forty-three  in  another. 

298.  The  equipment  of  most  of  the  schools  is  very  meager. 
In  this  respect  the  mission  schools  are  quite  the  equals,  if  not  the 
superiors  of  the  government  schools.  Many  of  the  government 
institutions  have  little  or  no  laboratory  equipment,  and  in  some  of 


MEDICAL  EDUCATION  179 

them  practically  all  the  instruction  is  given  by  the  lecture  system. 
The  student's  knowledge  of  the  human  body  is  largely  restricted 
to  what  he  has  gained  from  pictures  in  his  text  books.  Until  re- 
cently it  has  been  difficult  to  secure  material  for  dissection.  The 
scholastic  standards  differ  as  much  as  the  physical  equipment. 

299.  In  addition  to  the  medical  schools  there  are  several  hos- 
pitals which  have  certain  educational  features.  A  few  of  these 
offer  internships,  which  make  it  possible  for  graduates  of  the  medi- 
cal schools  to  have  a  year  of  hospital  experience,  including  in- 
struction from  the  foreign  physician  and  supervision  of  their  work. 
A  few  hospitals  are  training  assistants  who  are  able  to  carry 
limited  responsibilities  in  the  hospitals.  Still  others  are  training 
nurses,  both  men  and  women. 

There  are  approximately  three  hundred  hospitals  of 
various  grades  scattered  over  China.  These  include  every  type 
of  institution,  from  one-room  buildings  to  the  magnificent  equip- 
ment of  the  Peking  Union  Medical  Hospital,  one  of  the  finest 
and  best  equipped  hospitals  in  the  world.  • 

300.  It  is  scarcely  within  the  province  of  a  report  on  med- 
ical education  to  deal  with  the  hosj^ital  situation  at  any  length. 
This  report  is  concerned  with  hospitals  only  in  so  far  as  they 
are  educational  institutions.  It  is,  however,  pertinent  to  call  at- 
tention to  the  varying  character  of  these  institutions,  because  of 
their  direct  bearing  upon  the  future  ideals  of  the  Chinese  people. 
Many  of  the  hospitals  are  models  in  every  way,  clean,  well  ar- 
ranged, well  conducted,  and  thoroughly  creditable.  On  the  other 
hand,  there  are  others  which  reflect  little  credit  upon  the  missions 
which  are  supporting  them  or  the  doctors  who  are  directing  them. 
Some  of  the  buildings  are  of  such  a  character  that  no  Christian 
mission  ought  to  permit  their  continuance.  They  are  unsafe  and 
unsanitary.  The  Westerner  is  accustomed  to  associate  the  idea 
of  cleanliness  with  a  hospital,  but  some  of  these  hospitals  are 
little  less  than  filthy.  It  is  difficult  to  understand  how  representa- 
tives of  the  medical  profession  can  permit  the  existence  of  some 
of  the  conditions  we  have  noticed.  They  a're  not,  to  say  the 
least,  setting  before  the  Chinese  a  standard  of  which  we  can  be 


i8o  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

proud.  For  the  sake  of  our  influence  would  it  not  be  better  to 
close  some  institutions,  rather  than  to  conduct  them  in  such  a  way 
as  to  reflect  discredit  upon  the  Christian  ideal? 

301.  Our  survey  of  the  whole  field  has  revealed  the  fact  that 
medical  education  has  been  developed  to  a  larger  degree  than  any 
other  type  of  education  included  in  the  Christian  system  in  China. 
This  is  a  perfectly  natural  result  of  the  motive  which  underlies 
missions.  This  advantage  has  been  emphasized  by  the  large  in- 
vestments of  the  China  Medical  Board,  not  only  in  their  splendid 
plant  in  Peking  but  in  other  medical  schools,  pre-medical  schools, 
and  hospitals.  To  the  marked  advance  in  standards  of  hospitals 
and  medical  education  which  has  taken  place  in  recent  years  the 
China  Missionarv  Medical  Association  has  also  largely  contributed. 


II.    Relation  of  the  Medical  Schools  and  Hospitals  to  the  Christian 

Movement 

302.  The  original  motive  for  the  development  of  medical 
work  in  non-Christian  lands  was,  without  doubt,  a  mixed  one. 
It  was  both  philanthropic  and  evangelistic.  On  the  part  of  the 
medical  missionary  himself  the  predominating  element  was  doubt- 
less philanthropic.  His  heart  was  stirred  within  him  as  he  wit- 
nessed the  suffering  and  agony  of  the  people  to  whom  he  had 
come  to  represent  his  Master.  When  he  found  that  in  China, 
every  other  man,  woman  and  child,  whom  he  met  on  the  street, 
was  in  some  way  diseased  he  could  not  remain  unmoved.  He  was 
impelled  to  bring  such  help  as  he  could.  At  the  same  time  he 
discovered  that  there  was  no  more  effective  avenue  of  approach 
to  the  non-Christian  mind  than  the  healing  of  the  ills  of  the  body. 
His  hospital  became  a  most  effective  evangelizing  force.  Prob- 
ably the  same  combination  of  motives  has  obtained  in  the  minds 
of  the  constituency  at  home,  but  in  different  proportions.  They 
have  given  generously  to  the  extension  of  the  medical  work,  chiefly 
because  of  the  abundant  evidence  of  its  evangelizing  efficacy,  but 
with  an  increasing  susceptibility  to  its  philanthropic  appeal  and 


MEDICAL  EDUCATION  i8i 

a  growing  recognition  of  the  necessity  of  the  philanthropic  ex- 
pression of  the  Christian  spirit. 

303.  It  is  becoming  increasingly  evident  that  medical  mis- 
sions are  no  longer  needed  to  pry  open  the  doors  for  the  presenta- 
tion of  the  gospel.  In  fact  it  is  already  clear  that  the  Christian 
schools  are  much  more  efifective  agents  for  the  purpose.  The 
adherents  to  Christianity  won  in  the  Christian  schools  every  year 
far  outnumber  those  won  by  the  hospitals.  Moreover,  the  students 
are  those  with  whom  the  future  of  China  rests.  We  shall  not  need 
to  open  many  more  hospitals  purely  as  evangelizing  agencies.  But 
this  does  not  mean  that  the  time  has  come  to  decrease  medical  work. 
It  has  distinct  values  both  for  the  present  and  the  future. 

304.  It  is  essential  to  develop  in  China  the  spirit  of  Christian 
brotherhood,  which  shall  manifest  itself  outside  of  the  relationships 
of  the  family  or  the  clan.  One  can  not  fail  to  be  impressed  with 
the  fact  that  Christian  philanthropy  has  not  yet  been  manifested  in 
any  large  way  by  the  Chinese.  Their  meager  development  of  medi- 
cal work  in  spite  of  the  example  set  by  foreign  missionary  forces, 
indicates  that  until  they  discover  how  fundamental  it  is  to  the 
whole  Christian  movement,  medical  missions  must  be  continued. 

As  the  Christian  community  develops  the  spirit  of  phil- 
anthropy, and  as  its  resources  increase  it  will  itself,  little  by  little, 
take  over  this  phase  of  the  Christian  movement  and  the  missions 
will  rejoice  to  put  in  in  their  hands.  But  for  an  indefinite  period 
we  must  continue  to  perfect  our  medical  education  that  we  may 
train  native  doctors  and  nurses.  The  genius  of  our  contribution 
does  not  demand  more  schools  of  medicine,  but  it  does  demand 
much  better  schools. 


III.    Scope  of  Medical  and  Pre-Medical  Education 

305.  The  requirements  for  admission  to  the  medical  schools 
differ  materially.  The  government  schools  admit  middle  school 
graduates,  most  of  whom  have  little  instruction  in  physics,  chem- 
istry or  biology.  Most  of  the  Christian  schools  require  subjects 
which  can  be  covered  by  two  years  of  pre-medical  college  work. 


i83  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

The  Peking  Union  Medical  College  requires  three  years  of  study 
after  the  middle  school  as  it  is  at  present  organized  and,  because 
there  are  few  colleges  which  can  give  satisfactory  pre-medical 
preparation,  Peking  maintains  a  pre-medical  school  of  its  own. 
It  will  discontinue  this  as  soon  as  the  colleges  are  equipped  to  give 
their  students  satisfactory  pre-medical  training. 

306.  If  the  new  system  of  education  which  has  been  recom- 
mended by  the  National  Associated  Educational  Associations  is 
adopted  it  ought  to  be  possible  for  students  to  meet  the  require- 
ments of  the  standard  medical  schools,  including  Peking,  after 
two  years  of  college  work.  But  whether  or  not  the  new  system 
is  adopted  we  are  convinced  that  the  medical  schools  ought  not  to 
require  more  pre-medical  work  of  the  colleges  than  can  legitimately 
be  given  in  the  first  two  years  of  the  college  course.  If  more  prep- 
aration is  required,  it  should  be  given  by  the  medical  schools  them- 
selves, or  in  the  associated  universities,  in  a  pre-medical  year.  The 
colleges  should  not  be  burdened  with  pre-medical  work  extending 
beyond  the  first  two  years  of  their  course. 

307.  Two  factors  must  be  taken  into  account  in  considering 
the  amount  of  research  work  which  ought  to  be  undertaken  by 
medical  schools.  On  the  one  hand  a  spirit  and  atmosphere  of  re- 
search are  essential  to  good  teaching.  On  the  other  hand  a  small 
staff  can  give  but  limited  time  to  research.  Because  of  its  unusual 
staff  and  equipment  a  large  amount  of  such  work  may  be  expected 
at  Peking.  The  research  work  in  other  schools  will  by  force  of  cir- 
cumstances be  limited  until  they  are  adequately  staffed.  For  the 
present  they  will  be  obliged  to  depend  to  a  large  degree  upon  the 
results  of  the  work  in  Peking,  and  of  a  few  individuals  who  may 
here  and  there  have  opportunity  to  investigate  some  particular 
local  problems. 

IV.    Schools  of  Pharmacy 

308.  The  question  whether  the  Christian  medical  colleges 
should  establish  schools  of  pharmacy  has  been  raised.  One  or  two 
have  entered  this  field  in  a  small  way  through  instruction  given  by 
the  pharmacist  of  the  staff. 


MEDICAL  EDUCATION  183 

It  is  the  judgment  of  the  Commission  that  our  schools 
should  not  take  up  this  work.  Except  in  the  remote  districts  it  is 
not  difficult  to  secure  drugs.  They  can  be  purchased  in  all  the 
large  cities  and  can  be  ordered  from  abroad.  We  are  advised  by 
leading  physicians  that  this  is  a  restricted  field  and  that  there  is  no 
necessity  for  the  Christian  schools  to  enter  it.  It  is  a  form  of 
education  in  which  Christianity  will  have  limited  opportunity  to 
express  itself  and  the  task  resting  upon  the  Christian  forces  is  so 
great  that  this  particular  form  of  work  may  well  be  left  to  other 
institutions. 


V.  Public  Health  Education 

309.  Physicians  are  more  and  more  emphasizing  the  im- 
portance of  preventive  medicine.  They  are  seeking  not  so  much  to 
cure  people  who  are  ill  as  to  prevent  people  from  becoming  ill. 
Public  health  education  is  therefore  becoming  an  increasingly  im- 
portant factor  in  their  ministry.  An  educated  Chinese  physician 
says : 

"In  the  past  public  health  was  practically  absent  from 
the  Chinese  mind.  Thinkers  hardly  ever  gave  a  thought  to  it. 
Writers  scarcely  ever  wrote  a  line  on  it.  Teachers  knew  practically 
nothing  about  it  and,  consequently,  never  taught  it.  Generation 
after  generation,  from  infancy  till  old  age,  the  Chinese  people  have 
formed  unhygienic  habits  so  that  they  have  felt  rather  at  home 
with  unsanitary  conditions  which,  to  the  foreigners,  are  almost 
unbearable  " 

One  cannot  walk  the  streets  of  any  Chinese  city  without 
being  impressed  with  the  overwhelming  importance  of  such  edu- 
cation in  the  Orient.  China  has  no  appreciation  of  the  relation  of 
sanitation  to  health.  The  average  life  in  China  is  abnormally  short 
and  a  large  percentage  of  the  children  die  during  their  first  year. 
The  land  is  constantly  swept  by  great  epidemics  which  carry  off 
millions  of  people.  All  these  conditions  could  be  prevented  if  the 
people  understood  the  simplest  laws  of  health.  When  one  faces 
the  immensity  of  the  need  he  is  staggered ;  yet  there  is  abundant 


i84  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

evidence  that  conditions  can  be  bettered  and  the  health  of  the  people 
greatly  improved.  Most  encouraging  progress  has  been  made 
during  the  past  few  years.  A  short  time  ago,  during  the  epidemic 
of  cholera  in  Fukien.  remarkable  results  were  secured  from  the 
educational  work  which  was  done  during  a  few  weeks.  Great 
credit  is  due  the  Council  on  Health  Education  for  the  work  already 
accomplished.  The  prospect  is  that  the  properly  trained  health 
officer  will  in  the  future  save  far  more  lives  than  the  physician. 

310.  It  is  evident  that  there  is  a  large  field  here  for  the  ex- 
pression of  the  same  spirit  of  Christianity  which  has  manifested 
itself  in  the  maintenance  of  hospitals.  The  medical  schools  should 
give  their  attention  to  the  training  of  young  men  and  women  who 
can  go  into  the  field  of  health  education.  It  is  only  recently  that 
schools  of  public  health  have  been  established  in  America,  but 
the  movement  must  not  lag  behind  in  China  where  the  need  is 
vastly  greater.  This  is  a  most  important  field  for  the  medical 
schools  and  some  of  them  ought  to  enter  it  in  the  near  future.  We 
believe  that  funds  for  such  work  will  be  forthcoming  and  that 
the  missions  ought  not  to  hesitate  to  undertake  it.  .  It  is  much  more 
important  in  our  judgment  than  to  send  out  large  numbers  of 
foreign  doctors  to  man  hospitals.  It  is  hopeless  to  attempt  to  cure 
the  ills  of  China  simply  by  healing  the  sick.  The  obstacles  are 
too  great.  But  the  Christian  forces  can  render  immeasurable  ser- 
vice to  the  Republic  of  China  by  training  men  and  women  to  enter 
the  field  of  health  education. 

311.  We  therefore  recommend  that  one  or  two  Christian 
medical  schools  enter  the  specific  field  of  training  men  for  public 
health  work  in  the  near  future.  We  further  recommend  that  as 
soon  as  possible  the  Christian  forces  in  China  undertake  this  new 
task  of  public  health  education  in  as  large  a  way  as  their  finances 
will  permit.  We  believe  that  this  field  ofifers  the  Christian  church 
its  largest  opportunity-  to  manifest  the  spirit  of  philanthropy  which 
underlies  the  whole  Christian  movement.  Christianity  could  do 
nothing  more  effective  for  China  and  nothing  that  would  further 
its  own  cause  more  rapidly. 


MEDICAL  EDUCATION  185 

VI.    Hospitals  with  Educational  Features 

312.  We  recommend  that  the  Christian  forces  at  work  in 
China  shall  not  increase  the  number  of  medical  schools  now  under 
their  direction,  but  shall  rather  strengthen  some  of  those  which 
are  already  in  existence.  We  believe  that  this  is  essential  if  we 
are  to  continue  to  exert  influence  in  this  field  of  Christian  activity. 
In  addition  to  the  medical  schools,  however,  a  limited  number  of 
hospitals  may  well  maintain  educational  features.  This  privilege 
and  responsibility  should,  however,  belong  only  to  the  stronger 
institutions.  The  hospitals  which  are  not  adequately  staffed  and 
financed  should  not  burden  themselves  with  this  work. 

313.  There  are  various  educational  needs  which  may  be  thus 
met.  It  is  a  distinct  advantage  to  the  graduate  of  a  medical  school  to 
have  at  least  one  year  of  internship  in  a  strong  hospital  where, 
under  the  supervision  of  the  medical  staff,  he  may  begin  his  active 
medical  work.  The  hospitals  which  are  sufiiciently  well  staffed  to 
do  so  should  offer  the  privileges  of  internship  to  a  limited  number 
of  graduates  each  year.  This  will  add  to  the  burdens  of  the  doctors, 
but  it  will  contribute  materially  to  the  advancement  of  the  medical 
profession. 

314.  Every  hospital  feels  the  necessity  of  training  its  own 
staff  of  nurses.  Unfortunately  most  of  these  hospitals  are  not  ade- 
quately manned  to  do  this  work  efficiently.  Every  hospital  should 
have  at  least  two  foreign  nurses  upon  its  staff.  Not  every  hospital 
can  have  the  assistance  of  an  interne  or  house  surgeon.  But  every 
hospital  must  have  nurses.  There  is,  moreover,  a  great  need  of 
nurses  in  schools  aiid  for  outside  work,  especially  where  there  are 
but  few  physicians.  Formerly  the  hospitals  trained  so-called  hos- 
pitals assistants,  but  this  practice  has  been  discontinued  because 
of  the  tendency  of  men  so  trained  to  set  up  as  physicians  with 
risk  to  their  patients  and  to  the  disrepute  of  the  profession.  It  is 
the  judgment  of  competent  physicians  that  the  need  which  the 
hospital  assistant  was  intended  to  meet  can  be  met  more  effectively 
and  more  safely  by  thoroughly  trained  nurses,  both  men  and 
women. 


i86  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

315.  This  calls  for  a  school  for  nurses,  to  which  candidates 
should  be  admitted  only  after  a  middle  school  course,  and  in  which 
they  should  receive  systematic  instruction  and  training  extending 
over  a  period  of  years.  Such  a  school  can  manifestly  be  maintained 
only  in  connection  with  a  well-staffed  hospital,  and  should  not  be 
undertaken  by  any  other.  But  as  an  adjunct  to  a  hospital  able 
to  undertake  the  work,  the  service  rendered  is  only  second  in  im- 
portance to  that  of  a  medical  school,  and  more  advisable  than  the 
maintenance  of  a  medical  school  with  inadequate  equipment  and 
staff.  Nurses  graduated  from  such  a  school  should  be  certified  as 
graduate  nurses,  and  in  such  a  way  as  to  prevent  their  being  ac- 
cepted as  physicians. 

316.  There  has  been  much  discussion  of  a  school  for  techni- 
cians, men  and  women  who  with  a  knowledge  of  chemistry,  bac- 
teriology and  some  other  subjects  of  the  pre-medical  and  medical 
course,  can  make  analyses  of  urine  and  blood,  prepare  slides  and 
cultures,  make  microscopical  examinations  and  keep  records.  It 
has  been  suggested  that  a  school  for  technicians  with  a  staff  of 
eight  or  ten  instructors  should  be  established  in  connection  with 
some  hospital.  Such  information  as  the  Commision  has  been  able 
to  secure  leads  them  to  believe  that  for  the  present  this  work  should 
be  done  by  the  stronger  medical  schools,  or  that  if  organized  in 
connection  with  a  hospital  it  should  be  on  a  much  more  modest 
scale  than  has  been  proposed. 

317.  A  third  and  very  important  form  of  educational  work 
which  can  be  done  by  a  hospital  with  adequate  staff  is  in  the  field 
of  public  health.  Beside  the  work  of  the  medical  school,  there  is 
a  definite  task  for  the  hospital.  Every  hospital  adjacent  to  a 
Christian  school  should  cooperate  with  the  faculty  of  the  school 
in  preventing  disease  among  the  faculty  and  student  body. 
See  Section  189.  But  there  is  also  a  large  opportunity  for  serv- 
ice in  the  community  adjacent  to  the  hospital.  The  prevention 
of  disease  is  certainly  quite  as  appropriate '  a  function  of  the 
Christian  physician  and  hospital  as  the  treating  of  chronic  ulcers, 
or    setting    broken    bones.      The    Commission    commends    to    all 


MEDICAL  EDUCATION  '  187 

hospitals  able  to  undertake  work  in  this   field  the  plans  of  the 
Council  of  Health  Education. 

By  extending  its  activities  in  one  or  more  of  these  direc- 
tions within  the  limits  of  its  ability  a  hospital  may  render  a  phil- 
anthropic service  of  first-class  importance. 


VII.    Future  Developments 

318.  That  in  the  system  of  Christian  education  in  China 
medical  education  is  far  in  advance  of  any  other  department  has 
been  pointed  out  above  (Section  301).  This  is  true  whether  one 
considers  the  equipment  in  buildings  and  apparatus,  the  annual 
expenditures,  or  the  size  of  the  faculties.  The  funds  devoted  to 
this  type  of  education  are  far  more  than  a  proportionate  share  of 
the  total  amount  contributed  by  the  Mission  Boards,  reckoned  on 
the  basis  of  relative  need.  This  is  not  at  all  strange  in  view  of  the 
effectiveness  of  the  healing  art  in  opening  the  doors  for  the  gos- 
pel, or  of  the  great  need  throughout  China  of  unlimited  means  for 
alleviating  the  suffering  and  distress  of  the  uncared-for  multitudes. 

It  is,  however,  both  unnecessary  and  impossible  for  the 
Christian  forces  to  maintain  all  the  medical  schools  which  are 
needed  to  provide  an  adequate  number  of  physicians  to  minister  to 
these  hundreds  of  millions  of  people.  It  is  impossible,  for  if  all  the 
missionary  funds  which  are  poured  into  China  year  by  year  were 
devoted  to  the  maintenance  of  medical  schools,  these  funds  would 
not  be  sufficient  to  meet  these  needs.  It  is  unnecessary  because 
the  responsibility  rests  primarily  upon  the  Chinese  people  them- 
selves and  they  must  not  be  relieved  of  the  care  of  their  fellow 
citizens.  This  responsibility  is  already  being  recognized  and  men 
of  means  are  giving  generously  for  the  founding  of  such  institu- 
tions Only  a  beginning  has  as  yet  been  made,  but  it  is  a  beginning 
full  of  promise.  The  next  few  years  will  doubtless  see  large  sums 
of  money  provided  by  the  Chinese  for  the  establishment  of  these 
institutions. 

319.  So  far  as  the  number  of  medical  schools  to  be  main- 
tained by  the  foreign  forces  is  concerned  the  limit  of  development 


i88  •   CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

has  in  our  judgment  already  been  reached.  Attention  ought  now 
to  be  devoted  to  strengthening  existing  schools  and  to  develop- 
ing other  essential  features  of  a  well-rounded  system  of  Christian 
education. 

In  no  phase  of  education  is  quality  more  essential  than 
in  medicine.  While  we  have  a  generous  number  of  schools,  a 
thoroughly  satisfactory  quality  of  education  has  not  been  achieved 
in  more  than  one  school.  The  expert  advisers  of  the  China  Medical 
Board  have  properly  called  attention  to  the  necessity  of  bringing 
the  existing  schools  up  to  grade.  The  greatest  contribution  which 
the  foreign  forces  have  to  offer  to  the  Chinese  in  this  matter  is 
to  show  them  what  kind  of  an  education  they  ought  to  give  in  the 
schools  which  they  are  to  establish,  and  to  furnish  to  the  medical 
profession  men,  who,  by  their  high  Christian  principles  and  char- 
acter, will  help  to  maintain  the  ethical  standards  of  the  profession. 
All  our  schools  ought  to  be  models.  By  making  them  such  we 
shall  render  the  largest  service. 

We  must  bear  in  mind  also  that  there  is  a  distinct  advan- 
tage in  developing  one  line  of  education  to  a  point  of  approximate 
completeness  as  a  standard  to  which  others  may  then  strive  to 
attain.  We  have  not  indeed  reached  that  point  in  our  medical 
education,  but  we  have  more  nearly  attained  it  than  in  any  other 
branch  of  professional  education,  and  it  will  strengthen  our  influ- 
ence greatly,  if  by  further  investment  in  some  of  the  institutions 
already  established,  we  can  make  these  models  for  China.  Despite, 
therefore,  the  large  proportionate  investment  already  made  in 
medical  education,  we  urge  the  appropriation  of  additional  funds 
in  a  few  strategic  institutions  which  shall  become  our  outstanding 
contributions  to  the  science  of  medical  education  in  China,  only 
advising  that  care  be  taken  that  the  development  of  other  educa- 
tional enterprises  which  are  in  more  urgent  need  of  funds  be  not 
unduly  delayed.  The  whole  scheme  of  Christian  education  ought 
to  be  taken  into  consideration  when  additional  investments  are  con- 
templated.  This  has  not  always  been  the  case. 


MEDICAL  EDUCATION        .  189 

VIII.   specific  Recommendations 

320.  Peking. — Every  friend  of  Christian  missions  must 
rejoice  in  the  establishment  and  development  of  the  Peking  Union 
INIedical  College.  In  place  of  the  small,  struggling  institution, 
formerly  maintained  by  the  missions,  we  now  have  one  of  the 
best-equipped  medical  colleges  in  the  world.  It  can  not  fail  to 
render  a  service  of  incalculable  value  to  the  health  and  strength 
of  the  Chinese  nation  and  to  the  cause  of  Christian  missions  in 
this  great  Republic.  Aside  from  the  contribution  to  medical 
education  it  has  set  a  new  standard  of  quality  for  all  education. 
By  reason  of  the  large  investments  of  the  China  Medical  Board,  the 
cooperating  missions,  though  still  participating  in  the  management, 
have  been  relieved  of  all  financial  responsibility  for  its  mainten- 
ance. This  has  released  funds  which  may  now  be  used  to  develop 
our  medical  education  at  other  points.  The  Commission  hopes 
that  these  funds  will  be  available  for  other  projects  greatly  need- 
ing help. 

321.  TsiNAN. — Next  to  the  Union  Medical  College  at  Peking, 
the  Medical  School  of  the  Shantung  Christian  University  is  doubt- 
less the  best  equipped  mission  medical  school  in  China.  Remark- 
able progress  has  been  made  in  the  last  few  years.  A  new  hospital 
and  laboratories  have  been  erected.  Residences  have  been  provided 
and  the  staff  has  been  considerably  increased.  This  institution  has 
a  distinct  place  in  the  Christian  educational  system  of  China. 
Medical  authorities  are  well  agreed  that  in  view  of  its  location  and 
of  the  degree  of  development  to  which  it  has  already  attained, 
attention  should  at  once  be  given  to  making  this  a  first-class  insti- 
tution. The  Commission  advises  that  the  Boards  which  are  par- 
ticipating in  its  maintenance  should  so  far  as  possible,  concentrate 
their  first  efforts  on  perfecting  this  school  at  Tsinan. 

322.  Chengtu. — There  are  some  who  believe  that  the  West 
China  Union  University  acted  prematurely  in  the  establishment  of 
a  medical  school  in  Szechwan.  Of  the  need  of  it  there  can  be 
no  doubt.  The  university  has  been  in  operation  only  eleven  years, 
and  while  it  is  organized  on  an  ideal  basis,  its  funds  are  at  present 


iQO  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

limited.  One  who  studies  the  situation  in  this  western  province, 
however,  can  well  understand  why  the  missions  felt  compelled  to 
open  a  medical  school  as  one  of  the  first  steps  in  the  development 
of  their  university.  Whether  their  decision  was  wise  or  not  it  is  too 
late  now  to  discuss.  The  house  is  built,  not  completely  or  as  well 
as  it  should  be,  but  too  well  to  be  destroyed.  The  medical  school  is 
a  going  concern.  The  missions  are  among  the  most  progressive  and 
the  work  in  the  whole  province  is  most  promising  for  the  Christian 
movement.  The  Boards  can  not  contemplate  withdrawing  from 
Chengtu.  This  means  that  the  school  must  be  strengthened.  The 
staflf  should  be  increased  so  as  to  make  possible  a  school  which  can 
set  a  worthy  standard  for  medical  education  in  the  whole  province. 
The  hospitals  are  not  well  located  for  the  best  interests  of  the 
school  and  the  missions  are  advised  to  consider  whether  a  re- 
location at  a  point  much  nearer  the  medical  school  is  not  possible 
in  the  near  future.  This  would  add  to  the  efficiency  of  the  medical 
staff  and  conserve  the  time  of  the  students. 

323.  Changsha. — An  interesting  and  promising  experiment 
is  being  carried  on  in  the  Yale  Mission  at  Changsha,  which  is 
conducting  a  middle  school,  a  college,  a  medical  school  and  a  hos- 
pital. Founded  and  originally  maintained  by  the  alumni  of  Yale 
University,  this  institution  has  so  commended  itself  to  the  gentry 
of  Hunan  that  many  of  them  have  become  interested  in  its  main- 
tenance and  are  giving  generously  for  the  support  of  the  medical 
work.  As  a  demonstration  of  what  can  be  done  through  the  co- 
operation of  Chinese  and  foreigners  this  school  is  a  most  valuable 
asset  to  Christian  missions. 

For  a  period  of  many  years  the  alumni  of  Yale  have 
given  generously  to  the  support  of  this  outstation  of  their  univer- 
sity in  the  Orient.  The  question  is  now  being  raised  as  to  whether 
some  other  colleges  in  America  might  not  be  interested  in  joining 
with  Yale  in  strengthening  this  school.  We  believe  that  this  sug- 
gestion should  commend  itself  to  the  alumni  of  some  other  Amer- 
ican colleges.  The  cooperation  of  these  alumni  groups  may  prove 
to  be  one  of  the  most  promising  methods  of  interesting  the  young 
men  of  America  in  the  the  uplift  of  China. 


MEDICAL  EDUCATION  191 

]\Iuch  is  also  to  be  hoped  for  from  the  Chinese  of  Hunan 
in  the  further  development  of  this  institution.  It  is  too  much  to 
expect  that  in  the  near  future  they  will  assume  the  entire  burden, 
but  their  cooperation  should  be  sought  in  large  measure.  To  the 
Chinese  of  Hunan  and  to  the  groups  of  American  alumni  we  be- 
lieve this  school  should  continue  to  look  for  its  support  rather  than 
to  the  regular  constituency  of  the  denominational  Boards. 

324.  In  view,  however,  of  the  high  cost  of  medical  education, 
the  large  proportion  of  the  funds  obtainable  for  Christian  educa- 
tional work  in  China  that  is  now  going  into  medical  education,  the 
necessity  of  increasing  this- share  if  the  existing  medical  schools 
are  to  be  raised  to  the  necessary  standard  of  efficiency,  and  the 
difficulty  of  obtaining  sufficient  and  competent  faculties  for  medical 
schools  of  this  grade,  we  raise  the  question  whether  the  Yale 
Mission  might  not  wisely  limit  its  undertaking  to  a  somewhat 
narrower  range  of  work.  If  instead  of  a  medical  school  it  should 
decide  to  maintain  a  first-class  hospital  with  educational  features, 
including  public  health  work,  the  training  of  nurses  and,  perhaps, 
of  technicians,  it  seems  probable  that  such  a  hospital  would  com- 
mand the  support  of  the  gentry  of  Hunan  as  fully  as  the  medical 
school  now  does,  and  that  the  greater  development  of  the  college 
work  which  concentration  on  it  would  make  possible,  would  serve 
to  increase  rather  than  to  diminish  the  interest  of  American 
universities  in  the  institution.  If  in  addition  this  modification  of 
Yale's  plans  should  tend  to  hasten  the  development  of  the  remain- 
ing medical  schools  Ijv  the  transfer  of  its  good  will  and  a  portion  of 
its  faculty  to  them,  this  would  facilitate  the  attainment  of  our  real 
goal  in  medical  education,  viz.,  a  few  schools  adequately  staffed 
and  maintained.  We  venture  therefore  to  commend  the  suggestion 
to  the  thoughtful  consideration  of  the  Yale  Mission. 

325.  MouKDEN. — Following  their  visit  to  China  in  1914,  the 
China  Medical  Commission  of  the  Rockefeller  Foundation  made 
the  following  observation  regarding  the  Medical  School  at 
Moukden : 

"Peking  can  be  reached  in  one  day  from  Moukden  by 
express  and  in  ordinary  trains  by  two  days'  travel  from  sunrise 


192  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

to  sunset.  The  language  is  practically  the  same  in  Peking  and  in 
Moukden,  with  the  exception  of  very  unimportant  provincial 
variations.  For  this  reason  most  of  the  students  in  Moukden 
could  easily  go  to  Peking  for  the  medical  training  and  it  seems, 
therefore,  useless  to  undertake  a  separate  medical  educational  work 
in  Manchuria  under  present  circumstances,  when  the  number  of 
qualified  students  throughout  the  country,  and  the  resources  in 
men  and  money  for  the  maintenance  of  the  schools,  are  so  limited. 
This  is  also  the  opinion  of  many  of  the  leading  medical  mission- 
aries in  China.  Another  reason  for  this  conclusion  is  the  fact 
that  the  Japanese  government,  acting. through  the  South  Manchu- 
rian  Railway  Company,  a  government-controlled  corporation,  has 
established  there  what  seems  likely  to  be  a  fairly  efficient  medical 
school." 

Since  this  report  was  submitted  the  Japanese  government  has 
developed  this  school  into  the  second  best  equipped  medical  school 
in  China. 

326.  The  Christian  school  in  Moukden  is  the  result  of  the 
self-sacrificing  service  of  a  little  group  of  men  who  are  giving  their 
lives  to  this  cause.  Their  spirit  is  most  commendable  and  without 
question  they  are  doing  an  efficient  piece  of  work.  They  are  send- 
ing out  every  other  year  a  small  group  of  men  who  are  ministering 
to  many  of  the  needy  people  in  Manchuria.  Many  of  these  men 
might  not  secure  this  education  if  they  had  to  go  to  Peking  or 
Tsinan,  and  some  of  them  perhaps  would  not  be  willing  to  take 
their  education  in  the  Japanese  school. 

In  view,  however,  of  the  cost  of  maintaining  a  medical 
school  of  even  moderate  standard  which  must  carry  on  its  work 
by  the  side  of  this  well-equipped  government  institution,  and  of  the 
great  need  for  the  investment  by  the  missions  of  much  larger 
funds  in  the  development  of  their  middle  schools  and  college,  the 
Commission  seriously  questions  the  policy  of  further  investment  in 
this  school  at  Moukden.  The  Commission  would  suggest  to  the 
Mission  Boards  that,  unless  they  can  arrange  in  the  near  future 
for  the  financing  of  this  school  by  endowment  or  by  funds  guaran- 
teed for  a  period  of  years,  which  would  not  otherwise  be  available 


MEDICAL  EDUCATION  193 

for  mission  work  in  Manchuria,  the  medical  school  should  be  dis- 
continued. We  cannot  look  without  concern  upon  the  diversion 
of  the  limited  funds  which  are  available  for  work  in  this  province 
from  other  educational  enterprises  much  more  essential  to  the 
development  of  the  Christian  community. 

Despite  the  strong  and  valid  arguments  for  the  continu- 
ance of  this  school  the  Commission  is  constrained  to  make  this 
recommendation.  If  its  suggestion  is  followed,  and  the  permanent 
financing  cannot  be  provided,  the  Commission  believes  that  effort 
should  be  made  to  induce  the  provincial  government  which  gave 
the  land  on  which  the  building  stands  and  which  now  makes  an 
annual  grant  for  the  school,  to  consent  that  the  property  and  the 
grant  should  be  used  for  hospital  purposes.  It  is  further  sug- 
gested that  the  hospital  should  maintain  such  educational  features 
as  are  now  maintained  at  certain  other  hospitals,  such  as  training 
nurses,  giving  opportunity  for  experience  to  house  surgeons  or 
internes,  and  promoting  public  health. 

327.  FoocHow. — For  some  years  a  Union  Medical  College 
has  been  maintained  in  Foochow.  The  friends  of  the  school,  how- 
ever, have  never  been  able  to  secure  sufficient  funds  or  men  to 
maintain  a  high  grade  institution.  It  has  been  a  constant  strain 
upon  the  cooperating  missions  to  conduct  this  school.  Very  wisely, 
its  friends  have  acted  in  accordance  with  the  suggestion  of  the 
China  Medical  Commission  and  have  recently  closed  the  institution. 
While  this  may  mean  that  some  men  will  not  take  a  medical  educa- 
tion who  might  have  done  so  if  the  school  had  been  maintained, 
yet  the  cooperating  missions  can,  at  much  less  expense  to  them- 
selves, send  deserving  students  to  some  other  point  where  the 
education  can  be  secured.  The  province  of  Fukien  has  the  largest 
Christian  constituency  of  any  of  the  provinces  of  China,  and  the 
efforts  of  the  missions  ought  to  be  concentrated  on  providing  an 
education  for  the  large  numbers  of  their  young  people. 

328.  Canton. — The  capital  of  Kwantung  was  the  first  city 
in  China  to  have  a  hospital.  In  1835  the  Presbyterian  mission 
established  a  dispensary  and  later  a  hospital  in  a  most  strategic 
location.   This  institution  has  rendered  a  most  conspicuous  service 


194  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

for  these  many  years.  The  question  of  estabhshing  a  medical 
school  on  the  basis  of  this  hospital  has  been  discussed  at  length 
year  after  year,  but  the  discussion  has  never  issued  in  the  estab- 
lishment of  a  permanent  institution.  Several  years  ago  the  Uni- 
versity of  Pennsylvania  entered  into  cooperation  with  the  Canton 
Christian  College  and  opened  a  medical  school  on  the  campus  of 
the  college,  but  after  a  short  experience  this  was  discontinued. 
It  would  be  most  fortunate  if  this  rich  province  had  a  strong 
medical  school  under  the  direction  of  the  Christian  forces.  The 
time  has  now  passed,  however,  when  such  a  project  should  be 
launched.  The  Chinese  are  already  taking  a  deep  interest  in 
medical  education  and  two  schools  established  by  them  are  now  in 
operation.  Moreover,  Hongkong  University  is  developing  its 
school  of  medicine  and  with  an  increasing  equipment  expects  to 
make  it  an  institution  of  standard  grade.  While  this  institution 
may  not  provide  a  medical  education  of  just  such  a  character  as 
we  might  desire,  yet  in  view  of  these  undertakings  and  of  the  other 
great  educational  tasks  in  South  China,  the  Commission  is  con- 
vinced that  the  missions  should  abandon  all'  further  efforts  to 
establish  a  medical  school  and  should  concentrate  their  efforts 
upon  their  other  educational  work.  There  are  several  schools  in  the 
district  which  should  have  increased  equipment  and  larger  annual 
incomes.  This  is  especially  true  of  Canton  Christian  College.  This 
institution  has  already  attained  an  enviable  position  and  has  dem- 
onstrated its  possibilities.  The  Commission  believes  that  further 
investments  in  higher  education  in  this  province  should  be  used 
to  strengthen  and  enlarge  this  college.  The  results  to  the  Christian 
community  and  in  building  up  the  Christian  church  in  South  China 
will  be  much  greater  by  strengthening  this  school  than  by  attempt- 
ing to  build  a  medical  school.  The  Commission  therefore  urges 
the  Christian  forces  of  Kwantung  to  abandon  all  thought  of  erect- 
ing a  medical  school  and  to  concentrate  their  efforts  on  strengthen- 
ing their  other  educational  work. 

The  problems  relating  to  the  Hackett  Medical  School  for 
women  are  dealt  with  in  another  section. 

329.    Shanghai. — After  a  review  of  the  whole  situation  the 


ATEDICAL  EDUCATION  195 

China  Medical  Commission  of  the  Rockefeller  Foundation,  in  1914, 
made  this  declaration :  "Shanghai  seems  to  be  after  Peking  by  far 
the  best  location  for  a  strong  and  widely  influential  medical 
school." 

There  seems  to  be  little  dissent  from  this  opinion,  except 
that  many  believe  that  as  a  location  for  a  medical  school  Shanghai 
is  fully  equal  to  Peking.  This  city,  foreign  though  it  is,  is  the  gate- 
way to  China.  While  it  is  not  regarded  with  the  same  affection 
by  the  Chinese  as  Peking  or  Canton,  it  is,  nevertheless,  destined  to 
continue  to  be  the  leading  commercial  city  of  China.  It  is  growing 
rapidly  in  population  and  wealth.  It  is  a  center  for  publication 
and  for  organizations  of  all  kinds.  It  is  the  terminus  of  the  most 
important  transportation  routes  of  the  country,  putting  it  in  direct 
communication  with  the  whole  eastern  coast  and  a  large  part 
of  the  interior.  It  contains  a  larger  population  which,  by  its 
intelligence,  progressiveness  and  wealth,  gives  promise  of 
furnishing  support  for  educational  work  than  any  other  city  in 
China. 

Here,  moreover,  the  Christian  enterprise  has  its  center 
to  an  extent  that  is  true  of  v^  other  city  in  China.  Here  many 
of  the  Boards  and  Missions  have  their  headquarters ;  more  travel- 
lers from  Christian  lands  come  here  than  to  any  other  point ;  here 
it  is  possible  to  gather  the  alumni  of  colleges,  foreign  and  Chinese, 
as  nowhere  else.  Increasingly  Shanghai  will  be  the  center  of  the 
Christian  influences  for  the  whole  Republic. 

Furthermore,  Shanghai  is  beyond  any  other  city  the  edu- 
cational center  for  all  Eastern  China.  Without  a  school  located  at 
this  point  there  will  be  for  all  East  China,  including  the  coast  from 
Shanghai  south,  no  Christian  medical  school,  unless,  indeed,  the 
lack  of  it  in  Shanghai  should  unhappily  lead  to  the  establishment 
of  one  or  more  inadequately  staffed  schools  at  less  advantageous 
points.  This  whole  area  would  then  fall  to  other  schools,  not  under 
Christian  influence  (there  is  one  such  now  in  Shanghai)  ;  students 
who  would  otherwise  seek  a  medical  education  in  a  Christian  school 
would  turn  to  non-Christian  schools ;  and  the  tendency  would  be 
to  develop  in  this  great  area  a  medical  profession  uninfluenced  by 


196  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

Christian  ideals.  This  would  certainly  be  most  disadvantageous 
both  to  the  Christian  community  and  to  the  Chinese  generally. 
Such  an  argument  might  indeed  be  put  forth  in  reference  to  every 
point  at  which  a  medical  school  now  exists  and  for  various  other 
cities.  But  the  exceptional  scope  of  the  influence  of  Shanghai 
and  the  practical  impossibility  of  maintaining  more  than  a  very 
small  number  of  Christian  medical  schools  make  these  consider- 
ations, in  our  judgment,  a  decisive  argument  for  the  development 
of  a  strong  Christian  school  here  rather  than  at  certain  other 
points. 

330.  The  question  of  language  is  a  serious  one.  While  there 
are  distinct  advantages  in  giving  an  education  in  the  vernacular, 
yet  the  differences  in  dialect  in  this  part  of  China  are  so  great  that 
the  various  interests  can  be  united  only  in  the  use  of  English. 
A  school  at  Shanghai  teaching  in  English  would  serve  all. 

As  we  have  already  pointed  out  we  need  sooner  or  later 
to  complete  our  system  of  medical  education  under  Christian  aus- 
pices. With  a  strong  school  in  Shanghai  the  system  would  reach 
a  point  of  development  which  we  believe  would  make  unnecessary 
the  establishment  of  any  new  school  for  an  indefinite  period  of 
time. 

331.  The  importance  of  a  school  at  Shanghai  has  been  recog- 
nized for  a  long  time  and  various  attempts  have  been  made  to 
establish  such  a  school.  In  1896  St.  John's  University  opened  a 
school  which  is  still  continuing.  In  1914  the  University  of  Penn- 
sylvania joined  forces  with  St.  John's  and  since  then  has  been 
appointing  members  of  the  staff.  Hampered  though  it  is  by  lack 
of  sufficient  support  this  school  has  done  a  creditable  piece  of 
work.  About  1910  the  Harvard  Medical  School  of  China  was 
founded  by  the  alumni  of  Harvard  University,  but  it  continued 
its  work  for  only  a  short  period.  Its  discontinuance  was  most 
unfortunate,  for  it  gave  promise  of  offering  a  solution  for  the 
problem  in  Shanghai.  For  a  period  of  years  the  missions  cooper- 
ated in  conducting  a  medical  school  at  Nanking.  It  was  expected 
that  this  would  become  the  medical  school  for  East  China,  but 
when  it  was  announced  that  the  China  Medical  Board  would  prob- 


MEDICAL  EDUCATION  197 

ably  establish  a  medical  school  in  Shanghai  the  medical  school  at 
Nanking  was  discontinued. 

332.  Recently  the  representatives  of  the  institutions  and  the 
missions  working  in  East  China  have  been  considering  a  plan  of 
cooperation  whereby  they  would  take  over  the  present  school  of 
St.  John's  University  and  incorporate  it  in  a  union  enterprise. 
These  representatives  have  decided  to  launch  this  undertaking  as 
soon  as  it  shall  receive  the  official  sanction  of  the  missions  in 
China  and  of  the  Boards  at  home,  and  as  soon  as  the  necessary 
funds  can  be  secured. 

333.  The  Commission  has  been  consulted  frequently  in  this 
matter.  As  we  have  already  indicated,  we  believe  that  in  the  near 
future  there  should  be  a  medical  school  under  Christian  auspices 
in  Shanghai,  and  we  give  our  cordial  approval  to  such  an  under- 
taking. When  it  is  carried  into  efifect  the  school  should  be  coedu- 
cational and  adequate  facilities  provided  for  the  education  of 
women.     See  Section  338. 

But  we  are  constrained  to  add  one  word  of  caution.  If 
the  resources  of  men  and  money  were  less  limited  than  they  are, 
we  should  gladly  commend  the  proposed  medical  school  in  Shanghai 
for  immediate  development,  but  we  are  compelled  by  force  of  cir- 
cumstances to  recommend  that  it  should  not  take  precedence  over 
certain  other  undertakings  which  we  are  elsewhere  recommending 
for  early  development,  but  take  its  proper  place  in  the  order  of 
priorities.  See  Section  715.  We  hope  that  the  time  may  not  be 
distant  when  the  plans  recently  made  may  be  carried  into  efifect. 
Meantime  we  recommend  that  as  soon  as  practicable  a  Union 
Medical  School  be  organized  as  an  integral  part  of  the  proposed 
Christian  University  for  East  China,  with  a  view  to  its  further 
development  when  conditions  permit.  We  further  recommend  that 
the  Boards  supporting  this  school  be  as  far  as  possible  other  than 
those  which  are  contributing  to  the  support  of  the  school  at 
Tsinan. 

The  plans  for  the  school  should  include  adequate  provi- 
sion for  women's  education  of  the  character  indicated  in  Section 
338.  That  the  plans  for  the  development  of  the  education  of  women 


igS  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

may  not  be  delayed,  separate  provision  for  it  should  if  necessary 
be  made,  pending  the  time  when  with  larger  developments  of  the 
ultimate  plan  a  fuller  measure  of  coordination  may  be  effected. 


IX.    Women's  Medical  Education 

334.  The  question  of  the  medical  education  of  women  in 
China  has  long  been  a  mooted  one.  There  are  at  present  three 
schools  giving  education  to  women  alone,  two  of  them  under 
Christian  auspices :  the  North  China  Union  Medical  College  for 
Women,  established  at  Peking  in  1908,  and  the  Hackett  Medical 
College  for  Women,  established  in  Canton  in  1909.  These  schools 
represent  the  heroic  efforts  of  small  groups  of  women  who.  in  the 
face  of  the  greatest  discouragements,  have  held  on,  hoping  that  they 
might  lay  the  foundation  for  the  medical  training  of  women  of  the 

-Orient.  They  have  had  to  work  in  small  and  poorly  equipped 
schools  and  hospitals  and  have  been  greatly  handicapped  by  their 
inability  to  secure  a  sufficient  number  of  competent  women  doctors 
to  come  to  China  as  teachers. 

The  China  Medical  Commission  made  the  following  com- 
ments after  their  study  of  the  subject :  "The  schools  are  hampered 
from  the  start  by  an  inability  to  get  a  sufficient  number  of  girls 
with  a  proper  preliminary  education.  Until  the  whole  standard  of 
education  of  girls  is  raised,  and  until  a  higher  education  for 
women  has  been  developed,  the  medical  schools  will  be  forced  to 
keep  their  admission  requirements  low  and  to  struggle  with  a  poorly 
prepared  group  of  students.  It  would  hardly  seem  wise  to  take 
active  steps  to  foster  medical  education  for  women  until  the  under- 
lying educational  structure  has  been  considerably  strengthened. 
For  the  present  such  women  as  are  peculiarly  fitted  for  the  pro- 
fession might  better  be  sent  abroad  for  a  thorough  training." 

335.  Considerable  change  has  taken  place  in  the  eight  years 
since  this  report  was  prepared,  yet  the  fundamental  conditions 
remain  much  the  same.  There  are  more  opportunities  now  than 
then  for  girls  to  secure  a  higher  education  and  the  number  of  such 
girls  is  increasing  steadily.     Moreover,  a  fair  percentage  of  the 


MEDICAL  EDUCATION  199 

girls  in  college  have  expressed  a  desire  to  take  a  medical  education. 
But  the  number  of  women  with  a  sufficient  degree  of  education 
who  are  qualified  to  take  a  medical  training  is  still  very  small. 
The  whole  group  of  women  students  is  not  large  and,  according  to 
present  indications,  will  not  be  large  enough  for  many  years  to 
come.  There  are  only  ninety-five  women  students  in  all  the 
medical  schools  of  China  to-day.  In  view  of  these  three  consid- 
erations, it  is  a  question  whether  the  Women's  Mission  Boards, 
from  whose  treasuries  the  funds  to  maintain  such  institutions  must 
largely  come,  are  justified  in  attempting  to  support  even  one  sep- 
arate medical  school  for  women. 

IMoreover,  the  experience  of  the  present  schools  has 
shown  that  it  is  very  difficult  to  secure  a  sufficient  number  of  com- 
petent women  physicians  in  America  and  England  to  staff  separate 
schools.  All  the  missions  report  great  difficulty  in  obtaining  a  suffi- 
cient number  of  women  physicians. 

336.  It  must  also  be  taken  into  account  that  Peking,  Tsinan, 
and  Changsha  have  all  opened  their  doors  to  women  on  equal 
terms.  The  trend  toward  coeducation  is  developing  rapidly  in 
China,  and  the  former  opposition  to  the  education  of  the  two  sexes 
together  in  professional  schools  will  apparently  disappear  in  the 
not  distant  future.  When  it  is  recalled  that  with  all  our  advance 
in  the  education  of  women  there  is  but  one  medical  school  for 
women  in  England  and  but  one  in  America,  it  seems  clear 
that  we  should  proceed  with  caution  in  creating  such  schools  in 
China. 

337.  The  Commission  has  been  highly  gratified  to  learn  that 
since  its  conference  with  the  representatives  of  the  faculty  of  the 
North  China  Union  Medical  College  for  Women  a  plan  has  been 
worked  out  for  the  amalgamation  of  that  sehool  with  the  medical 
department  of  the  Shantung  Christian  University.  If  the  Boards 
give  their  consent,  and  there  should  be  no  delay  in  doing  so,  the 
school  at  Tsinan  will  become  coeducational,  a  proportionate  number 
of  women  will  be  added  to  the  teaching  staff,  a  new  hospital  for 
women  and  hostels  for  women  students  will  be  erected.  We  con- 
gratulate the  women  of  the  North  China  College  upon  this  emi- 


200  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

nently  wise  solution  of  their  problem,  and  we  urge  upon  the  Boards 
in  America  and  England  their  cordial  and  hearty  assent  and  coope- 
ration in  carrying  these  plans  through  to  completion. 

338.  In  view  of  these  considerations,  it  is  the  judgment  of  the 
Commission  that  the  important  interests  of  women's  medical  educa- 
tion can  best  be  conserved,  not  by  the  maintenance  of  separate 
medical  schools  for  women,  but  by  concentration  on  securing  for 
women  proper  opportunities  and  care  at  the  coeducational  schools. 
Not  only  would  the  women  students  at  once  receive  a  better  educa- 
tion than  can  for  some  time  be  provided  in  a  separate  school,  but  the 
funds  already  in  hand  or  obtainable  would  make  possible  the  addi- 
tion of  women  professors  to  the  faculties  of  the  existing  schools, 
the  erection  of  residences  for  women  students,  special  hospitals  for 
women,  affording  suitable  clinical  facilities  for  women  students, 
and  a  travelling  fund  for  students  coming  from  a  distance.  Tsinan 
would  offer  facilities  for  those  who  prefer  instruction  in  Mandarin, 
Peking  and  Shanghai  for  those  who  prefer  English. 

339.  Should  this  plan  for  adequate  reason  be  deemed  imprac- 
ticable, the  Women's  Mission  Boards  should  in  our  judgment 
unite  their  forces,  transfer  the  Hackett  Medical  School  from' 
Canton  and  establish  one  first-class  school  for  women  in  the 
city  of  Shanghai.  Certainly  the  Boards  could  not  justify  the 
expenditure  of  the  funds  necessary  to  build  more  than  one 
school.  It  would  be  a  clear  diversion  of  mission  funds  from 
their  best  use.  If  organized,  this  school  in  Shanghai  should 
be  established  in  close  affiliation  with  the  medical  school  for  men, 
which  should  materialize  in  the  near  future  (Sections  329-333), 
in  order  that  there  may  be  a  saving  of  large  sums  of  money  in  the 
erection  of  laboratories  and  hospitals  and  in  the  equipment  of  the 
same,  as  well  as  in  the  conservation  of  the  life  force  of  the  men 
and  women  who  must  make  the  necessary  sacrifices  to  make  these 
institutions  possible.  No  waste  of  life  or  money  is  justified  in 
this  critical  hour. 

If  there  is  any  delay  in  carrying  out  the  plans  for  a  strong 
coeducational  school  in  Shanghai  (see  Section  333),  we  recom- 
mend that  the  Women's  Boards  proceed  with  the  establishment  of  a 


MEDICAL  EDUCATION  201 

school  for  women  in  Shanghai,  so  organized  as  to  become  a  part 
of  the  coeducational  institution  to  be  developed  at  that  point. 

X.   ScJwoIs  of  Dentistry 

340.  The  missions  have  not  embarked  in  the  field  of  dental 
education  to  any  large  extent.  They  have  been  too  busy  with  other 
tasks.  There  are  a  limited  number  of  dentists  on  the  stafifs  of  some 
of  the  medical  schools,  but  there  is  only  one  dental  school  operated 
by  the  missions,  so  far  as  we  have  been  able  to  discover.  This  is 
the  faculty  of  dentistry  of  the  West  China  Union  University. 
It  was  not  strange  that  the  missions  at  work  in  that  remote  province 
should  have  desired  dentists  located  among  them.  The  Canadian 
mission  responded  to  the  demand  and  sent  out  two  dentists.  Na- 
turally, these  men  desired  to  build  up  a  dental  profession  in  China. 
They  began  instruction  and  laid  the  foundation  for  a  dental  de- 
partment. This  led  to  the  demand  for  more  dentists  until  there  are 
now  four  on  the  stafT. 

341.  We  do  not  criticize  the  mission  for  sending  an  adequate 
number  of  dentists  to  Szechwan  to  care  for  the  large  mission  body, 
but  we  do  seriously  question  the  advisability  of  attempting  to  build 
up  a  complete  dental  school  when  the  medical  school  is  so  inade- 
quately staffed.  It  is  not  yet  at  all  competent  to  meet  the  situation. 
We  realize  that  dentistry  and  medicine  have  a  close  relation,  but 
it  would  have  been  wiser  in  our  judgment  to  build  up  the  medical 
faculty  before  attempting  to  found  a  dental  school.  Now  that  the 
work  is  well  started  and  men  are  on  the  field,  having  acquired  the 
language,  we  cannot  advise  that  the  department  be  closed,  but  we 
recommend  that  no  more  dentists  be  added  to  the  faculty  until  the 
medical  school  be  thoroughly  equipped  and  we  urge  other  missions 
not  to  attempt  the  foundation  of  similar  departments  until  we  have 
adequately  established  our  medical  schools. 

XI.    Summary  of  Recommendations 

(i)  Recognizing  the  impossibility  of  furnishing  the  number 
of  physicians  needed  in  China,  and  the  necessity  of  meeting  the 


202  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

new  demands  for  the  expression  of  the  philanthropic  spirit  of 
Christianity,  the  Christian  forces  should  limit  themselves  to  the 
maintenance  of  a  very  few  medical  schools  which  shall  set  up  a 
high  standard  of  medical  education  and  practice  and  contribute 
to  the  profession  men  who  will  by  their  character  and  influence 
maintain  its  ethical  ideals. 

(2)  All  medical  schools  should  be  coeducational,  with  the 
possible  exception  of  one  school  for  women. 

(3)  Larger  attention  should  be  given  to  prcA'^entive  medicine 
and  the  training  of  health  officers,  and  the  stronger  hospitals 
should  develop  educational  features,  including  the  training  of 
nurses  and  public  health  work. 

(4)  Schools  of  Pharmacy  and  Dentistry  should  be  left  to 
other  agencies  to  develop. 


CHAPTER  VII 

AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION : 

ITS  PLACE  IN  THE  SYSTEM  OF  CHRISTIAN 

EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

I.   Agricultural  Work  Under  Way 

342.  Agricultural  education  began  in  China  at  least  as  early 
as  1907.  At  present  Canton  Christian  College  maintains  a  college 
of  agriculture,  and  the  University  of  Nanking  a  college  of  agri- 
culture and  forestry ;  Peking  University  has  organized  an  agricul- 
tural and  animal  husbandry  experiment  station  and  offers  college- 
grade  instruction  in  the  same  field ;  Yale-in-China  has  several 
courses  in  forestry. 

343.  There  are  three  missions  giving  agricultural  work  in 
middle  schools ;  thirteen  supporting  work  for  the  improvement  of 
crops  and  animals ;  thirty-six  giving  agricultural  lectures,  short 
courses,  practice  work  for  students ;  fifty -two  maintaining  school 
gardens,  and  eleven  growing  seeds,  nursery  stock  or  vegetables 
for  sale.  The  American  Presbyterian  Mission  North  has  eleven 
stations  doing  some  type  of  agricultural  work;  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  six;  the  ^Canadian  Methodist  five.  There  are  in  mission 
service  in  China  at  least  fifteen  foreign  agricultural  specialists 
who  hold  degrees  from  agricultural  colleges;  thirteen  returned 
students  educated  in  agriculture ;  and  seven  who  are  graduates  of 
institutions  in  China — a  total  of  thirty-five  men  already  at  work 
in  the  agricultural  field  under  the  auspices  of  Christian  institu- 
tions.^ 

^  These  facts  are  taken  from  the  manuscript  of  an  article  by  Professor  J.  Lossing 
Buck,  of  the  University  of  Nanking,  prepared  for  the  survey  volume  of  the  China 
Continuation    Committee.      Probably    there    are    other    men    and    enterprises    not    listed 

203 


204  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

II.  Evidences  of  an  Increasing  Interest 

344.  There  is  abundant  evidence  of  a  rapidly  growing  interest 
in  agricultural  missions  in  Qiina,  many  items  of  which  are  sum- 
marized in  the  China  Mission  Year  Book  for  1919.  Perhaps  the 
most  striking  testimony  is  a  recent  resolution,  which  has  been  ap- 
proved by  nine  of  the  ten  Christian  Educational  Associations  in 
China,  as  follows : 

"That  the  Executive  Committee  of  the  China  Christian 
Educational  Association  be  empowered  to  appoint  a  committee  on 
agricultural  education,  whose  duty  it  shall  be  to  prepare  an  'All- 
China'  program  looking  toward  the  introduction  of  agriculture  into 
our  mission  schools,  through  the  development  of  provincial  normal 
training  centers  for  the  suitable  preparation  of  teachers." 

The  committee  is  at  work  on  a  program  of  increasing 
the  activities  in  all  types  and  grades  of  agricultural  work.  The 
Committee  on  Economic  and  Industrial  Problems,  of  the  National 
Christian  Conference  of  1922,  is  including  agriculture  as  an  im- 
portant part  of  its  report. 


III.   Shall  the  Missions  Increase  Agricultural  Work? 

345.  Some  phases  of  educational  endeavor  under  Christian 
management,  such  as  theological  education,  are  universally  re- 
garded as  germane  to  the  Christian  enterprise  in  China,  but  the 
extension  of  work  in  agriculture  is  not  yet  the  accepted  policy 
of  all  the  missions,  and  it  is  necessary  for  the  Commission  to  advise 
on  this  point. 

The  more  obvious  objections  to  enlarging  the  agricul- 
tural educational  work  are  that  the  development  of  a  great  industry 
like  agriculture  is  a  public  function ;  that  China  has  already  begun 
a  system  of  agricultural  education;  that  in  any  event  the  task  is 
so  huge  as  to  be  quite  beyond  the  compass  of  Christian  agencies; 
that  the  cost  of  this  type  of  education  is  prohibitive;  that  well- 
trained  men  are  not  available  for  such  work  in  China;  and  finally, 


AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION  205 

that  it  is  doubtful  whether  technical  education  of  any  kind  is  a 
function  of  Christian  education  in  China. 

346.  Some  of  these  objections  lie  against  nearly  all  aspects 
of  Christian  education.  The  government  has  already  inaugurated 
nearly  all  branches  of  education,  and  every  private  educational 
agency  serves  China  as  a  supplement  to  the  work  of  the  gov- 
ernment. The  size  of  the  problem  has  really  nothing  to  do  with 
our  question ;  for  the  best  argument  for  Christian  education  of  any 
sort  consists  in  the  uniqueness  of  quality,  emphasis  and  outlook. 

While  the  costs  of  agricultural  education  are  high,  there 
is  ground  for  believing  that  its  development  will  make  an  unusually 
strong  appeal  to  persons  and  special  groups  not  yet  enlisted  to  aid 
education  in  China.  The  able  men  already  in  the  field,  and  the 
newly  aroused  interest  in  agricultural  missions  at  home,  seem  to 
promise  adequate  personnel.  Whether  agriculture  is  as  valid  as 
teacher-training  for  example,  as  a  field  of  education,  depends 
upon  the  point  of  view  as  to  the  task  of  Christian  education  in 
China.  All  education  may  be  wholly  Christian  in  purpose,  and 
one  of  the  duties  of  Christian  institutions  is  to  demonstrate  that 
principle.  Moreover  it  must  be  understood  that  agricultural  edu- 
cation, defined  in  a  broad  way,  is  far  more  than  technical  in  con- 
tent and  application ;  it  is  essentially  humanitarian,  and  may  be 
fully  Christian. 

IV.    Agricultural  Education  and  the  Chinese  Church 

347.  But  positive  argument  for  including  agriculture  in  the 
plans  for  Christian  education  in  China  is  found  in  the  vital  con- 
nection between  the  growth  and  power  of  the  Christian  church, 
and  the  function  and  possibilities  of  agricultural  education.  It  is 
estimated  that  six  per  cent  of  the  people  of  China  live  in  cities 
of  50,000  population  and  over,  and  a  similar  proportion  in  towns 
of  from  10,000  to  50,000  population.  Probably  three-quarters  of 
China's  400,000,000  people  live  in  villages  and  hamlets  containing 
from  2,500  people  down  to  three  or  four  families.     It  is  believed 


2o6  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

that  80  per  cent  of  the  Chinese  have  direct  economic  contact  with 
the  soil  and  may  be  classed  as  farmers.  It  has  also  been  estimated 
that  there  are  not  less  than  one  hundred  thousand  villages,  each  of 
which  with  its  group  of  perhaps  ten  hamlets  tributary  to  it,  offers 
a  center  for  a  possible  Christian  church.  It  is  evident  that  the 
ambition  to  compass  the  Christian  occupation  of  China  depends 
for  its  realization  upon  the  ability  of  the  church  to  reach  these 
rural  masses,  living  in  perhaps  one  hundred  thousand  villages  and 
one  million  neighborhoods  or  hamlets.  Chinese  civilization  is 
deeply  rooted  in  these  small  but  distinct  and  wholly  democratic 
social  groupings.  The  Chinese  church  even  now  is  recruiting 
its  workers  from  country-bred  folk.  The  church  cannot  possess 
China  unless  she  secures  the  allegiance  of  rural  China. 

348.  The  Chinese  church  must  be  self-sustaining  financially, 
but  the  masses  of  village  people  are  fearfully  poor,  constantly  on 
the  margin  of  life,  with  practically  no  surplus.  The  missions  have 
a  concern  nothing  less  than  vital  in  the  permanent  economic  im- 
provement of  Chinese  farming  and   farmers. 

It  would  seem  therefore  as  if  the  Christian  enterprise 
in  China,  purely  as  a  matter  of  church  statesmanship,  or  of  in- 
terest in  church  development,  would  be  compelled  to  encourage 
a  widespread  effort  to  educate  the  farm  people. 

V.    The  Farm  Villages  and  the  Kingdom 

349.  There  is  another  justification  for  pressing  agricultural 
education.  Many  who  are  wholly  loyal  to  the  idea  of  securing 
a  strong  Christian  church  in  China,  believe  profoundly  that  the 
church  is  not  an  end  in  itself,  but  is  to  be  the  servant  of  a 
better  China.  An  article  in  a  recent  number  of  The  Chinese 
Recorder,  by  Tai  Ping  Heng,  puts  this  point  of  view  forcefully: 

"It  is  widely  accepted  that  the  task  of  the  Christian 
church  is  two-fold,  the  Christianization  of  China  and  Sinization 
of  Christianity.  Neither  of  them  can  be  accomplished  if  the  vil- 
lages are  left  out  of  consideration.  Of  real  social  control  the 
villages  are  the  source." 


AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION  207 

350.  xA.lI  experience  goes  to  emphasize  the  fundamental  need 
of  Christianizing  local  groups.  The  greater  Christian  community 
is  made  up  of  a  multitude  of  small  Christian  groups.  In  China 
the  farm  villages  are  true  social  units,  the  very  tissue  of  Chinese 
civilization.  If  this  civilization  is  to  be  dominated  by  and  per- 
meated with  the  principles  of  Christianity,  these  rural  groups, 
these  farm  villages,  are  to  be  made  miniature  kingdoms  of  God. 
But  the  specifications  of  the  kingdom  are  that  it  must  be  eco- 
nomically sound  and  effective ;  intelligent  in  its  manhood  and 
citizenship ;  socially  clean,  wholesome  and  solid ;  suffused  with 
the  religious  spirit ;  motivated  by  Christian  ideals.  Now  edu- 
cation is  fundamental  in  this  process  of  kingdom  building,  an 
education  that  is  as  inclusive  in  scope  as  all  the  needs  of  the  people, 
as  broad  as  the  rural  problem.  A  system  of  agricultural  education 
therefore,  ministering  to  the  technical,  the  economic,  and  the 
social  needs  of  the  farm  villages  and  hamlets  of  China  is  essen- 
tial to  the  development  of  a  truly  Christian  rural  civilization 
within  her  borders. 


VI.    The  Task  of  Agricultural  Education 

351.    The  main  purposes  of  a  system  of  education  that  meets 
the  needs  of  a  farming  people  are  at  least  these : 

a.  To  give  a  minimum  schooling  to  the  children  of  the 
countryside  reasonably  commensurate  in  both  amount  and  quality 
with  that  given  to  the  children  of  the  cities,  and  adapted  to  the 
special  needs  of  the  rural  groups. 

b.  To  train  leaders  of  all  ranks,  competent  and  willing 
to  help  in  solving  the  problems  of  the  farm  folk. 

c.  To  gain  by  research  and  experiment  that  knowledge 
of  facts  and  principles  that  is  necessary  to  an  intelligent  ap- 
proach to  those  problems. 

d.  To  educate  adult  farmers  in  modern  farm  practices, 
cooperative  association,  betterment  of  living  conditions,  and  use- 
ful citizenship. 


2o8  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

VII.    Jiliat  is  the  Rural  Problem  in  China? 

352.  It  is  impossible  to  visualize  the  task,  or  to  plan  wisely 
for  a  system  of  agricultural  education,  without  at  least  a  cursory 
review  of  the  problems  involved  in  a  reconstructed  agriculture 
and  country  life  in  China.  Even  a  mere  index  or  list  of  problems, 
which  is  all  that  can  be  given  in  this  report,  will  serve  to  suggest 
the  breadth  of  plan,  the  generosity  of  intellectual  interest,  and  the 
social  sympathy  required  to  meet  the  need. 

The  farmers  of  China  are  wonderfully  skilled  in  many 
ways,  and  secure  amazing  results.  The  persistence  of  Chinese 
civilization  undiminished  for  forty  centuries  has  been  due  in  part 
to  the  success  of  her  farmers  in  growing  food  and  in  maintaining 
soil  fertility  over  great  areas.  But  serious  limitations  characterize 
China's  farming  and  many  difficulties  arise  with  which  the  farmers 
are  unable  to  cope.  For  example,  the  farmers  are  not  improving 
the  types  of  cultivated  plants  by  seed  selection.  The  potential 
gains  of  this  one  reform  are  beyond  calculation.  The  following 
list  suggests  the  presence  of  many  similar  problems : 

a.  Agricultural  land. — Land  tenure,  small  and  scattered 
holdings  and  widespread  tenantry ;  evils  of  landlordism ;  great 
acreage  of  lands  unused   for  production  of   food  or  textiles. 

b.  Labor  efficiency. — Surplus  of  labor,  supremacy  of  hand 
labor ;  ineffective  labor ;  small  labor  income ;  low  standards  of 
living;  restricted  diet;  poor  sanitation;  dominance  of  supersti- 
tions as  affecting  farm  practice;  serious  prevalence  of  theft  and 
of  menacing  secret  societies ;  costly  customs. 

c.  Possible  improveuicnts  in  production. — In  some  areas 
the  maintenance  of  soil  fertility  is  a  serious  matter;  bettering 
farm  practice;  improving  plants  and  animals;  developing  animal 
husbandry. 

d.  Economic  conditions. — Poor  transportation  facilities; 
absence  of  cooperation  in  buying,  selling,  credit,  and  the  like,  with 
consequent  injustice  to  producers ;  high  rates  of  interest ;  absence 
of  insurance;    likin  and  other  forms  of  unjust  taxation. 


AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION  209 

e.  Social  life. — Family  life ;  schools ;  health ;  recreation ; 
local  government ;  isolation. 

f.  Control  of  physical  condiiions. — Flood  prevention; 
reforestation ;  irrigation  and  drainage ;  power  development. 

g.  Agriculture  and  national  life. — Famine  prevention ;  re- 
lation of  population  to  food  supply;  the  factory  system  and  the 
food  supply ;  village  and  home  industries ;  transportation  and  the 
food  supply;  land  development  and  colonization;  agriculture  in 
relation  to  industry,  commerce,  and  banking;  Chinese  agriculture 
and  world  agriculture  and  industry;  the  farmers  and  political 
development;  legislation  and  agriculture;  the  organization  of  agri- 
culture; need  for  statesmanship  and  leadership  in  rural  affairs. 


VIII.    A  Progranunc  of  Education  in  Agriculture  under  the 
Auspices  of  Christian  Institutions 

353.  The  village  school. — The  village  school  is  the  most  im- 
portant single  item  in  an  adequate  educational  system  for  the  rural 
people  of  China.  And  while  the  consideration  of  the  work  of  this 
school  belongs  to  another  section  of  this  report  (see  Chapter  on 
Elementary  Education)  the  basic  character  of  the  problem  in- 
volved demands  emphasis  because  of  its  bearing  upon  agricultural 
development.  For  it  seems  imperative  that  the  Christian  forces 
shall  maintain  a  sufficient  number  of  village  schools  to  demon- 
strate what  is  the  best  sort  of  education  for  the  farm  children,  to 
train  intelligent  leadership  in  the  village  life,  to  send  on  to  the 
middle  schools  and  colleges  those  children  that  can  profit  by  more 
advanced  schooling,  and  to  serve  in  general  as  allies  to  the  chu:ch 
in  the  development  of  the  villages  under  Christian  ideals.  The 
Christian  village  school  should  help  China  to  answer  such  ques- 
tions as  these :  can  the  village  school  be  made  as  good  a  school 
as  the  city  school  of  the  same  grade?  can  it  become  a  true  edu- 
cational and  social  center  for  the  community?  can  its  teacher 
be  a  real  leader  and  guide  of  the  people?  can  we  confidently  look 
forward  to  an  efifective  and  widespread  system  of  education  for 


210  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

the  rural   population  of   China,  comprising  three-fourths   of   its 
millions  ? 

354.  Agricultural  education  specifically. — The  dictum  that 
neither  the  missions  nor  the  Chinese  Christian  church  can  edu- 
cate China  applies  with  special  force  in  the  field  of  agricultural 
education.  But  for  reasons  already  indicated,  we  recommend  that 
an  effort  be  made  to  develop  as  rapidly  as  possible  a  modest  but 
model  system  of  agricultural  education  under  Christian  auspices; 
that  the  generally  accepted  tasks  of  agricultural  institutions,  teach- 
ing, investigation,  and  extension,  be  included  in  the  plans;  and 
that  every  possible  effort  be  made  to  cooperate  with  publicly  sup- 
ported agencies  of  agricultural  education  and  development. 

355.  Standard  development  for  each  area. — In  this  system 
we  would  consider  six  geographical  areas:  North  China,  East 
China,  South  China,  West  China,  Central  China,  and  Fukien,  and 
would  recommend  the  following  standard  development  for  each 
area.  In  each  region  we  would  recommend  a  group  of  institu- 
tions, closely  knit  into  a  cooperating  system,  and  all  the  areas 
joined  into  an  all- China  system.  The  institution  in  each  area 
would  be : 

a.  A  college  of  agriculture,  which  would  carry  on  inves- 
tigations, and  be  the  center  for  extension  service  in  the  area.  Such 
an  institution  can  probably  be  maintained  at  present  only  in  South 
China,  East  China,  and  North  China. 

b.  A  middle  school  of  agriculture,  preferably  not  con- 
nected with  the  college  and  probably  developed  out  of  an  existing 
middle  school,  covering  the  new  senior  middle  school  grades. 

c.  One  good  agricultural  vocational  school  in  each  pro- 
vince, with  a  course  of  one  year  at  the  outset.  This  school  should 
be  of  as  high  grade  as  will  reach  youth  who  will  become  working 
farmers.  An  effort  should  be  made  to  have  it  cover  the  first  year 
or  two  of  the  new  junior  middle  school  grades. 

d.  Each  mission  should,  as  an  experiment  or  demonstra- 
tion, and  in  at  least  one  elementary  school  in  a  distinctively  farm- 
ing village,  aim  to  provide  definite  vocational  agricultural  work, 
to  begin  at  whatever  grade  or  age  seems  necessary  in  order  to 


AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION  211 

keep  the  boys  in  school  for  at  least  one  year  of  training  for  life- 
work. 

356.  The  Agricultural  College. — It  is  assumed  that  the  agri- 
cultural work  in  the  Canton  Christian  College  and  in  the  University 
of  Nanking  will  be  continued  and  enlarged.  Peking  University 
is  making  only  a  beginning  in  agriculture,  but  is  justified  in  this 
step  because  it  can  serve  a  vast  territory  lying  at  a  great  distance 
from  Nanking,  an  area  wholly  distinct  in  its  physical  features  and 
agricultural  character  from  those  of  any  other  part  of  China.  If, 
however,  the  larger  part  of  the  financial  support  for  this  work  in 
Peking,  including  salaries  of  foreign  staff,  could  be  contributed  by 
Chinese,  very  great  advantages,  too  obvious  to  detail,  would  ensue. 
The  province  of  Szechwan  is  in  itself  an  empire,  the  bulk  of  its 
population  farmers,  and  it  would  seem  inevitable  that  this  dom- 
inant interest  of  the  people  should  be  recognized ;  but  it  might 
be  wise  to  build  a  first  class  middle  school  of  agriculture  before 
attempting  work  of  college  grade.  Central  China  presents  a  prob- 
lem to  be  reserved  for  discussion  in  a  subsequent  paragraph.  One 
school  of  forestry  will  suffice  for  all  China. 

357.  The  Agricultural  College  should  attempt  to  train  special- 
ists or  experts.  The  particular  occupations  for  which  men  will  be 
prepared  must  depend  somewhat  upon  real  demand,  the  actual  op- 
portunities for  work;  and  will  eventually  include  all  the  various 
aspects  of  the  rural  problem.  Men  are  now  needed  as  teachers, 
investigators,  extension  workers,  and  administrators.  The  college 
can  cooperate  to  some  extent  with  normal  schools  and  departments, 
and  theological  schools  and  departments  respectively,  in  training 
teachers  and  preachers  who  will  seek  service  where  knowledge  of 
the  farm  problem  is  an  important  part  of  their  equipment.  The 
Agricultural  College  under  Christian  auspices  should  send  forth 
real  leaders  competent  to  solve  rural  problems  thoroughly  Christian 
in  spirit  and  outlook.  It  should  guard  the  curriculum  against  nar- 
rowness, both  by  requiring  courses  in  citizenship  and  literature, 
and  by  emphasizing  the  wide  ranges  of  natural  science,  philosophy, 
history,  and  social  science,  that  underlie  and  permeate  the  subject 
of  agriculture  and  the  problems  connected  with  it. 


212  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

358.  Investigation. — Little  progress  can  be  made  in  agricul- 
tural teaching  in  China,  unless  the  results  of  investigation  and 
experiment  are  available.  It  is  quite  out  of  the  question  for  the 
Christian  agricultural  colleges  to  cover  in  their  research  the  whole 
rural  problem,  but  it  is  essential  that  they  carry  on  work  in  a  few 
fundamental  lines,  and  cooperate  with  government  agencies  in  a 
common  endeavor  to  discover  the  science  that  must  underlie  prac- 
tice.   Only  so  can  improvement  in  agricultural  affairs  result. 

It  must  be  understood  that  while  the  social  or  human 
welfare  results  are  the  great  aim  of  Christian  schools,  technical 
and  economic  gains  must  be  the  foundation  for  permanent  social 
progress.  Hence  research  in  both  the  scientific  and  social  realms 
is  necessary. 

359.  The  extension  service. — No  agricultural  college  does  its 
work  properly  that  fails  to  carry  a  suggestive  and  authoritative 
message  to  the  farmer.  The  Christian  agricultural  colleges  can 
hardly  hope  to  reach  the  great  masses  of  Chinese  farmers,  but 
they  have  no  better  service  to  render  than  to  demonstrate  success- 
fully how  the  farmer,  with  his  tiny  farm,  his  utter  lack  of  educa- 
tion, his  narrow  horizons,  his  reliance  upon  superstitutions,  can 
be  inspired  to  faith  in  applied  science  and  to  hope  for  a  fuller  life, 
economically  and  socially.  Lectures,  demonstrations,  testing  sta- 
tions or  farms,  travelling  exhibits,  motion  pictures,  charts,  bulle- 
tins, placards,  must  all  be  used  in  the  effort  to  stir  the  farmers  to 
better  things. 

Market  days,  idle  periods,  especially  in  the  winter  months, 
will  of  course  be  taken  advantage  of  in  extension  work.  When- 
ever possible  agricultural  students  should  be  used  as  helpers  in  this 
work,  in  order  both  to  enlarge  the  working  force  and  to  give 
students  a  love  for  and  practice  in  social  service  of  this  sort. 
All  that  is  said  about  reaching  the  farmers  applies  with  equal 
force  to  the  women  and  to  the  boys  and  girls  of  the  country, 

360.  The  Middle  School  of  Agriculture. — For  some  time  to 
come  it  is  probable  that  few  graduates  of  middle  schools  will  find 
employment  on  farms,  but  already  there  is  a  call  for  their  services 
as  assistants  to  experts,  especially  in  extension  teaching.     More- 


AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION  213 

over  there  is  little  hope  for  the  Christian  occupation  of  rural  China 
unless  both  preachers  and  teachers  especially  trained  for  the  task 
can  be  sent  to  serve  the  farm  villages.  One  of  the  largest  con- 
tributions of  the  Christian  agricultural  middle  school,  for  the  im- 
mediate future,  is  through  its  function  either  as  a  specialized  type 
of  normal  and  theological  school,  or  as  an  auxiliary  to  these  two 
training  institutions,  to  prepare  rural  teachers  and  preachers. 

It  is  impossible  for  the  Commission  to  go  into  detail  con- 
cerning the  precise  character  of  the  work  to  be  offered  in  this 
agricultural  middle  school.  But  the  wonderful  history  and  remark- 
able achievements  of  Hampton  Institute,  as  well  as  the  religious 
quality  of  its  leadership  and  purpose,  at  once  suggest  its  value  as 
a  model  for  China,  just  as  it  has  served  as  an  inspiring  guide  to 
industrial  education  in  all  parts  of  the  United  States  and  even  in 
Europe.  The  emphasis  upon  the  practical  arts,  character  develop- 
ment through  work,  religious  appeal  as  guide  both  to  self-develop- 
ment and  to  social  service,  sympathy  with  the  common  people, 
would  all  commend  themselves  to  the  Chinese.  Hampton  stresses 
both  teacher-training  and  preacher-training  for  those  going  to 
rural  fields.  It  includes  trades  as  well  as  agriculture.  It  would 
seem  as  if  Central  China  is  probably  the  best  area  for  the  first  ex- 
tensive enterprise  of  precisely  this  type,  presumably  near  the 
Wu  Han  cities.  Here  it  might  well  be  a  substitute  for  a  college 
of  agriculture.  If  the  Shantung  institutions  are  to  stress  the 
preparation  of  teachers  and  preachers  for  country  work,  there 
again  the  agricultural  middle  school  idea  might  be  utilized.  So  also 
in  Szechwan,  as  a  beginning  of  this  type  of  work,  an  institution 
of  essentially  middle  school  grade  is  suggested,  though  it  might 
at  first  cover  only  the  junior  middle  school  period.  The  same 
probably  holds  for  Fukien. 

These  recommendations  relative  to  middle  schools  do 
not  at  all  contravene  the  plan  for  provincial  agricultural  training 
centers,  projected  not  long  ago  by  some  educational  leaders  in 
China,  if  funds  for  the  larger  project  can  be  obtained.  It  is  sug- 
gested moreover  that  the  People's  High  School  of  Denmark  offers 
inspiring  suggestions  to  the  Christian  forces  in  rural  China. 


214  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

361.  Schools  for  prospective  farmers. — The  schools  recom- 
mended in  Section  355  c,  d,  are  of  two  grades,  the  first  to  be  as 
advanced  as  possible  and  still  turn  out  working  farmers ;  the  sec- 
ond, to  seek  to  reach  the  mass  of  boys  who  leave  school  prema- 
turely, with  something  that  will  help  them  vocationally.  The  first 
grade  of  school  will  probably  cover  the  former  higher  primary 
years.  The  second  grade  of  work  will  probably  take  the  form  of 
elementary  courses  in  agriculture.  The  aim  of  these  courses  is  to 
educate  boys  to  become  successful  farmers  and  Christian  leaders 
in  the  farm  villages.  Ideally,  the  specialized  vocational  work 
would  follow  the  first  four  years  of  the  elementary  school.  But 
to  be  effective,  vocational  work  of  this  grade  must  reach  the  boys 
at  a  point  early  enough  to  keep  them  in  school.  If  the  cost  seems 
to  make  it  impossible  to  maintain  full  time  vocational  courses 
of  elementary  grade,  several  of  these  schools,  cooperating  with  each 
other  and  with  the  colleges,  could  be  served  with  a  travelling  agri- 
cultural teacher  who  would  spend  a  day  each  in  the  schools  of 
several  villages.  The  types  of  farming  prevailing  in  the  neighbor- 
hood will  govern  the  technical  side  of  the  courses  in  both  grades 
of  this  farmers'  school.  There  should  be  much  farm  practice,  free 
use  of  projects,  and  the  work  should,  in  every  way,  be  adapted 
to  practical  ends  and  needs.  But  so  far  as  feasible  the  pupils 
should  be  led  into  the  economic,  social,  and  public  problems  which - 
the  farmers  of  China  must  face. 

362.  Schools  of  both  grades  should  serve  as  community  cen- 
ters for  the  survey  of  conditions  and  dissemination  of  information. 
They  must  become  vital  factors  in  village  reconstruction,  real 
leaders  toward  a  new  day  for  the  farmers  of  the  regions  they 
serve.  They  could  also  offer  short  courses  of  a  type  that  would 
attract  the  youth  out  of  school  and  the  younger  adults.  Home 
and  village  industries  are  so  closely  linked  with  farming  in  China, 
that  the  need  for  including  industrial  with  agricultural  work  is 
apparent.  Careful  study  should  be  given  to  the  value  and  possi- 
bilities of  different  types  of  these  industries,  how  they  can  be 
improved,  and  how  they  can  be  effectively  taught  to  those  to  whom 
they  can  be  of  help. 


AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION  215 

363.  Education  of  girls  and  women. — It  is  assumed  that  in 
those  regions  where  women  participate  in  farming,  all  grades  of 
work  offered  for  boys  and  men  in  agriculture  will  be  offered  to 
girls  and  women  as  rapidly  as  needed.  It  is  of  course  desirable 
that  the  education  of  the  girls  of  the  farm  villages  shall  be  stimu- 
lated in  every  possible  way.  In  addition  to  facilities  for  general 
education,  the  system  of  rural  education  should  fully  recognize 
home-making  and  home  industries, 

364.  Community  schools. — It  is  desirable  to  try  to  get  the 
whole  community  together  to  consider  their  common  problems. 
Sometimes  this  can  be  done  on  market  days.  But,  recalling  that 
the  original  Sunday-school  was  a  school  held  on  Sunday  but  de- 
signed to  teach  people  to  read,  an  experienced  missionary  educator 
in  China  has  made  a  suggestion  that,  while  advanced  with  some 
hesitation,  seems  worthy  of  full  discussion:  "Is  it  not  possible  to 
use  Sunday  in  the  farm  village  for  community  schools  and  lay 
before  the  villagers,  old  and  young,  the  program  for  a  better  com- 
munity?" This  program  would  include  practical  helps  for  better 
farming,  suggestions  for  health  and  comfort,  methods  of  village 
cooperation  for  common  ends,  and  the  teaching  of  Jesus  as  it 
applies  to  personal  character  and  social  relationship.  In  other 
words,  the  specifications  of  the  kingdom  could  be  set  before  the 
villagers  by  teacher  and  by  preacher,  who  could  thus  indicate  the 
practical  character  of  religion,  and  at  the  same  time  emphasize 
the  ideal  elements  in  social  progress  and  human  relationships. 
Students  in  the  schools  could  help  better  on  Sunday  than  on  any 
other  day.  It  requires  little  imagination  to  see  the  possibilities 
of  the  plan,  provided  the  schools  have  personnel  to  spare  for  a 
very  arduous  and  delicate  service.  The  suggestion  should  be 
developed  into  a  plan  and  given  a  fair  trial. 

365.  Agricultural  materials  in  general  subjects. — It  is  be- 
lieved that  the  subject  of  agriculture,  properly  defined,  organized, 
and  taught,  can  contribute  a  most  significant  element  to  the  teach- 
ing in  all  grades  of  education  in  China,  from  elementary  to  the 
college.  Especially  in  village  schools  it  is  important  as  a  phase 
of  education  from  environment.    For  example,  the  largest  part  of 


2i6  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

geography  and  nature  study  should  be  the  study  of  agriculture 
even  in  urban  schools.  These  studies  would,  if  properly  taught, 
consist  for  the  most  part  of  information  about  the  life  of  the  people, 
their  environment  and  occupations,  and  therefore  rural  life  and 
environment  and  occupations  should  constitute  the  largest  part 
of  these  studies.  It  has  been  proved  beyond  doubt  that  agricul- 
tural material  may  be  correlated  with  the  conventional  subjects  in 
a  way  to  make  these  subjects  far  more  effective  than  they  had 
ever  been  before.  Agricultural  material  offers  rare  opportunity 
for  training  in  observation,  in  accuracy  of  statement,  in  obed- 
ience to  natural  law,  in  alertness  to  and  appreciation  of  environ- 
ment; and  the  manual  work  connected  with  it  would  be  of  in- 
estimable value  in  keeping  the  student  from  false  views  of  the 
character  and  purpose  of  education. 

366.  Exchange  of  teachers  and  others. — It  is  highly  desir- 
able that  plans  be  worked  out  for  the  exchange  of  agricultural 
lecturers  between  China  and  other  countries,  for  travelling  fellow- 
ships for  students,  and  even  for  the  international  visitation  of 
farmers.  The  enlistment  and  training  of  agricultural  missionaries 
should  be  given  especial  attention  by  the  Mission  Boards. 

367.  A  Council  of  Agricultural  Education. — The  various 
agricultural  colleges  in  China  should  cooperate  closely  in  all  mat- 
ters ;  in  research  especially.  There  should  be  similar  cooperation 
between  each  college  and  the  middle  schools  and  elementary  schools 
in  its  area.  As  a  means  of  securing  constant  and  full  cooperation 
it  would  be  well  to  have  a  permanent  agricultural  committee  or 
council  of  the  China  Christian  Education  Association,  with  repre- 
sentation from  all  types  and  grades  of  work,  which  should  serve 
as  a  clearing-house  for  discussing  common  problems  and  thus 
securing  a  system  of  agricultural  education  under  Christian  aus- 
pices. It  should  make  the  budget  for  the  entire  system  of  agri- 
cultural work  in  China.  A  journal  of  agricultural  education  would 
be  of  great  value  and  could  he  published  by  the  Council.  The 
Council  could  arrange  for  the  translation  of  foreign  books,  and 
for  the  compilation  of  Chinese  literature  on  the  subject  of  agri- 
culture.   It  could  serve  to  correlate  the  research  work  in  the  eco- 


AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION  217 

nomic  and  social  fields,  as  between  the  urban  and  the  rural  aspects. 

368.  Cooperation  with  the  government. — It  is  the  clear  duty 
of  the  government  to  support  agricultural  education.  For  years 
to  come,  however,  the  Christian  system  of  agricultural  education 
need  not  duplicate  the  government  work,  so  huge  is  the  task,  pro- 
vided reasonable  care  be  taken  to  avoid  overlapping.  It  is  some- 
what doubtful  if  cooperation  in  teaching  is  feasible,  but  in  research 
and  extension  service  the  problem  of  coordinating  work  should  be 
an  easy  one  to  solve:  in  research,  by  cooperative  projects;  in 
extension,  by  division  of  geographical  areas  of  service.  Every 
effort  should  be  made  by  the  Christian  agricultural  agencies  to 
secure  genuine  cooperation  with  government  institutions  and  asso- 
ciations. 

IX.    The  Main  Objectives  of  the  Agricultural  Enterprise 

369.  Every  teacher  and  administrator,  every  institution  of 
every  grade,  every  program  and  project  connected  with  this  sys- 
tem of  agricultural  education  under  Christian  auspices,  should  be 
related  to  the  three  following  inclusive  objectives  of  the  whole 
enterprise. 

a.  The  complete  development  of  the  Chinese  farm  vil- 
lage. There  should  be  inaugurated  a  "best  village"  movement,  with 
a  practical  working  program  for  better  farm  practice,  better  co- 
operation in  farm  business,  and  better  communities  in  which  to 
live.  This  movement  should  be  essentially  Chinese  and  so  far 
as  possible  essentially  Christian. 

b.  A  comprehensive  all-China  program  for  the  improve- 
ment of  Chinese  agriculture  and  country  life,  sensitive  to  world 
relationships,  generous  in  its  scope  and  piactical  in  its  effort. 
The  cooperation  of  business  men  and  indeed  a  large  measure  of 
leadership  on  their  part  should  be  secured.  The  program  should 
be  as  broad  as  the  rural  problem. 

c.  The  training  of  a  Christian  leadership  for  these  two 
main  ends,  village  reconstruction  and  an  aggressive  national  agri- 
cultural movement,  so  that  in  village  work  as  well  as  in  larger 


2i8  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

affairs  there  may  soon  be  found  a  host  of  trained  farmers,  teachers, 
preachers,  scientific  speciaHsts,  administrators,  burning  with  a  pas- 
sion for  redeeming  rural  China  in  body,  mind,  and  soul,  and 
unitedly  determined  to  do  all  in  their  power  to  produce  in  China  a 
Christian  rural  civilization. 


X.    Summary  of  Recommendations 

(i)  That  agricultural  education  be  given  an  important  place 
in  the  system  of  Christian  education  in  China. 

(2)  That  the  village  school  be  recognized  as  needing  es- 
pecial attention,  because  of  its  vital  relationship  to  the  major  part 
of  Chinese  population,  and  the  peculiar  difficulties  that  surround 
its  work. 

(3)  That  agricultural  work  of  college  grade  be  provided  in 
three  institutions;  of  middle  school  grade  (senior)  in  five;  of 
middle  school  grade  (junior  )in  each  province;  of  elementary 
grade,  one  in  each  mission. 

(4)  That  both  research  and  extension  teaching  be  pressed 
as  rapidly  as  funds  will  permit. 

(5)  That  a  Council  of  Agricultural  Education  be  formed. 

(6)  That  cooperation  with  the  government  be  undertaken 
wherever  possible. 

(7)  That  a  "best  village"  movement  be  developed. 


CHAPTER   VIII 

EDUCATION  IN  THE  SOCIAL  APPLICATION  OF 
CHRISTIANITY 

I.    Introduction 

370.  The  Conference  on  Christian  Ethics,  Economics  and 
Citizenship  now  at  work  in  Great  Britain  is  one  of  many  signs 
that  the  churches  of  the  West  are  beginning  to  make  a  sys- 
tematic effort  to  think  out  the  appHcations  of  Christianity  to  the 
economic,  social,  and  poHtical  aspects  of  national  life,  and  also 
to  international  relations.  It  is  freely  acknowledged  that  neglect 
of  this  task  during  the  critical  period  which  followed  the  indus- 
trial revolution  has  been  one  of  the  deeper  causes  underlying  the 
Great  War  and  all  the  industrial  strife,  social  bitterness,  and  class 
hatreds  which  in  the  aggregate  constitute  no  less  a  tragedy.  If 
there  is  one  lesson  more  than  another  which  the  young  Christian 
church  of  China  may  learn  from  western  experience  it  is  that  it 
should  from  the  outset  bring  all  its  forces  to  bear  upon  the  great 
economic  and  social  problems  which  are  going  to  confront  China. 
The  very  presentation  of  Christianity  must  be  conditioned  by 
the  fact  that  China  is  entering  on  the  first  stages  of  a  great  indus- 
trial transformation.  The  answer  to  the  question  whether  indus- 
trialism is  going  to  prove  a  blessing  or  a  curse  to  China  may  turn 
largely  on  the  activity  of  the  Christian  community.  If  the  church 
rules  these  problems  outside  her  province  it  is  difficult  to  believe 
that  the  Chinese,  essentially  pragmatic  in  their  judgment  of  ideas 
and  institutions,  will  as  a  people  be  attracted  by  the  Christian 
message.  On  the  other  hand,  all,  whether  Chinese  or  foreigners, 
who  value  the  things  of  the  spirit  and  who  foresee  the  terrible 

219 


220  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

menace  to  humanity  involved  in  a  purely  materialistic  development 
of  China's  vast  resources,  are  waiting  for  a  definite  lead.  To 
make  Christianity  the  master-force  of  Chinese  national  life  the 
church  must  prepare  herself  to  give  that  lead  without  delay. 

371.  But  these  economic,  social,  and  political  problems  are  as 
difficult  and  complex  as  they  are  grave  and  pressing.  The  condi- 
tions at  present  existing  represent  partly  the  cumulative  results  of 
the  working  of  certain  deeply-rooted  Chinese  social  ideas  and  cus- 
toms over  a  long  period,  partly  the  incipient  effects  of  the  recent 
impact  on  China  of  western  commerce  and  industry.  Any  un- 
derstanding of  these  problems  with  a  view  to  their  solution  must 
involve  the  most  careful  study  of  the  interplay  of  different  factors. 
The  Christian  community  of  China  can  hope  to  approach  its  task 
only  through  the  medium  of  education,  and  there  is  perhaps  no 
part  of  the  Christian  enterprise  which  more  emphatically  de- 
mands an  adequate  educational  machinery  to  make  it  possible  of 
accomplishment. 

372.  The  essential  conditions  of  success  in  the  task  would 
seem  to  be : 

a.  The  systematic  development  of  a  Christian  public  opin- 
ion, leading  to  the  formulation  and  wide  diffusion  of  a  Christian 
ethic  on  vital  economic,  social,  and  political  issues. 

b.  The  careful  organization  of  economic  and  sociologi- 
cal research  that  will  provide  the  data  necessary  for  this  Christian 
ethic  to  find  expression  in  a  concrete  and  constructive  policy  of 
economic  and  social  reform  (e.g.,  in  factory  organization,  employ- 
ment of  women,  child  labor). 

c.  The  training  of  Christian  leaders  for  those  professions 
or  services,  both  public  and  private,  which  exert  the  greatest  influ- 
ence on  public  opinion  or  most  materially  affect  the  evolution  of 
the  nation's  social,  industrial,  and  political  life.  Among  these 
professions  we  include  the  following:  teaching  in  all  grades  of 
schools,  in  the  universities,  and  in  all  forms  of  extension  work, 
social  and  welfare  work  of  all  kinds,  journalism,  the  law,  business 
administration,  the  consular  service,  politics. 

The  question  must,  therefore,  be  asked,  to  what  extent 


EDUCATION  IN  THE  SOCIAL  APPLICATION  221 

is  the  Christian  system  of  education  contributing  to  these  three 
essential  functions  of  the  Christian  church,  and  what  changes  and 
development  are  needed  to  make  this  contribution  more  effective  ? 


II.    The  Elements  of  tJie  Problem 

373.  Review  of  present  situation. — That  there  is  an  increas- 
ing tendency  among  all  groups  of  Christian  workers  to  relate  Chris- 
tian teaching  more  definitely  and  explicitly  to  the  conditions  of  mod- 
ern Chinese  life,  is  hardly  open  to  question.  An  outstanding  exam- 
ple is  the  rapid  growth  and  increasing  influence  of  the  many  social 
activities  of  the  Young  Men's  Christian  Association  and  the  Young 
Women's  Christian  Association.  But  the  tendency  is  almost 
equally  marked  among  the  missionaries  and  their  Chinese  col- 
leagues, whether  their  work  is  primarily  evangelistic  or  educa- 
tional. City  evangelists  are  establishing  centres  at  strategic  points 
for  the  presentation  of  Christianity  as  a  social  as  well  as  a  per- 
sonal gospel,  with  a  message  for  all  who  are  beginning  to  feel  an 
interest  in  public  events;  and  some  rural  evangelists  are  being 
equipped  with  sufficient  agricultural  knowledge  to  enable  them  to 
understand  the  economic  problems  of  the  village. 

The  majority  of  educational  missionaries  are  showing 
a  keen  desire  to  use  the  school  as  a  means  of  producing  good  citi- 
zens as  well  as  good  Christians,  and  are  teaching  that  the  first 
is  really  involved  in  the  second.  The  appeal  for  social  service  is 
being  strongly  pressed  through  both  secular  and  religious  instruc- 
tion. It  is  evident  too  that  the  students,  taken  as  a  whole,  are  re- 
sponding to  this  stimulus,  and  that  many  of  them  feel  keenly  the 
responsibility  which  rests  upon  them  for  using  their  educational 
advantages  to  promote  public  welfare.  This  is  shown  especially 
by  the  innumerable  instances  of  students  devoting  a  considerable 
part  of  their  leisure  to  conducting  "people's  schools,"  as  day  schools, 
night  schools,  or  vacation  schools. 

It  should  also  be  noted  that  in  some  cases  important  ex- 
periments are  being  made  in  training  boys  directly  for  citizenship 
in  a  political  democracy,  by  carefully  fostering  the  same  forms 


222  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

of  self-government  which  it  is  hoped  to  introduce  into  the  na- 
tional life. 

Other  instances  could  be  adduced  of  the  thought  and 
energy  which  are  being  put  into  the  work  of  creating  in  the  stu- 
dent class  both  the  desire  and  the  capacity  to  serve  their  country. 
But  when  the  utmost  recognition  has  been  made  of  this  devoted 
effort,  it  must  frankly  be  said  that  the  essential  conditions  of  suc- 
cess for  the  achievement  of  the  task  are  far  from  being  satisfied. 
In  particular  there  is  as  yet  comparatively  little  systematic  effort 
to  build  up  a  Christian  public  opinion  on  economic,  social,  and 
political  issues,  and  there  is  hardly  more  than  a  beginning  of  defi- 
nite investigation  of  economic  and  social  conditions.  Some  of  the 
reasons  for  the  present  position  may  be  analyzed  as  a  prelude  to 
definite  suggestions  for  its  improvement. 

374.  The  training  of  Christian  public  opinion  on  economic, 
social,  and  political  questions. — It  is  clear  that  this  must  be  mainly 
achieved  through  ( i )  the  schools,  especially  the  middle  schools, 
and  colleges,  and  (2)  adult  education.  The  latter  is  of  great  po- 
tential importance  in  relation  to  the  subject  under  discussion,  but 
it  is  at  present  only  in  the  most  rudimentary  stage  of  develoj)ment. 
The  special  section  of  the  Report  dealing  with  it  should  be  read 
in  connection  with  the  succeeding  paragraphs.  See  Part  III,  Chap- 
ter XI,  Sections  409ff. 

In  the  schools  and  colleges  specific  training  for  citizen- 
ship must  be  given,  chiefly  through  the  medium  of  the  social  sci- 
ences, illumined  whether  directly  or  indirectly  by  the  principles 
of  ethics  and  religion.  They  may  be  said  to  comprise  in  the  middle 
schools,  history,  human  geography  and  civics,  and  in  the  colleges 
these  same  subjects  together  with  economics,  political  science,  law, 
and  sociology.  There  is  probably  no  country  in  the  world  where 
these  subjects  deserve  a  more  honorable  and  important  place  in 
the  scheme  of  education  than  in  China.  But  several  circumstances 
combine  to  make  their  teaching  both  insufficient  and  ineffective, 
especially  in  the  middle  schools. 

a.  The  fact  that  these  subjects  have  only  recently  become 
scientific  in  the  West  and  that  their  treatment  in  the  classical  sys- 


EDUCATION  IN  THE  SOCIAL  APPLICATION  223 

tem  of  Chinese  education  is  not  adapted  to  the  altered  conditions 
of  modern  life. 

h.  The  relatively  small  amount  of  time  allotted  to  the 
teaching  of  history  and  geography,  owing  to  the  heavy  claims  of 
English,  Chinese,  science,  and  mathematics  on  the  time-table. 

c.  The  frequent  use  of  English  as  the  medium  of  instruc- 
tion for  these  subjects  in  the  higher  classes.  Hov^^ever  strong  may 
be  the  arguments  for  teaching  them  in  English  under  existing  con- 
ditions, the  fact  remains  that  the  great  majority  of  boys  and  girls 
cannot  fully  appreciate  subject-matter  vv^hich  calls  for  serious 
thought  when  it  is  conveyed  in  a  language  other  than  their  own. 
Much  of  their  energy  is  necessarily  absorbed  in  the  effort  to  under- 
stand the  language,  instead  of  being  wholly  devoted  to  the  real 
significance  and  meaning  of  the  ideas  or  information  which  the 
language  is  intended  to  convey.  What  are  intended  to  be  lessons 
in  history  tend  to  become  lessons  in  English. 

d.  The  lamentable  want  of  text-books  and  larger  works 
in  history  and  geography,  whether  written  in  English  or  Chinese, 
suitable  to  the  needs  of  boys  and  girls  who  are  going  to  be  citizens 
of  China  under  twentieth  century  conditions. 

e.  Lack  of  training,  on  the  part  of  the  majority  of 
teachers  of  these  subjects,  in  the  art  of  treating  history  and 
geography  in  such  a  way  as  to  make  them  bear  effectively  on  the 
interpretation  of  the  life  of  modern  China,  its  social  and  economic 
problems  and  its  world  relationships.  In  particular  the  conception 
of  geography,  which  has  so  vitalized  its  study  in  many  western 
countries,  as  the  subject  in  which  the  student  may  view  the  whole 
problem  of  collective  living  in  relation  to  given  environmental  con- 
ditions and  through  which  he  can  foresee  the  probable  lines  of 
economic  and  social  development  in  different  types  of  regions,  is 
very  imperfectly  appreciated.  In  the  syllabus  of  at  least  one  Chris- 
tian educational  association,  while  history  is  treated  as  a  general 
subject,  geography  is  grouped  with  physics  under  the  natural 
sciences,  thus  losing  its  essential  significance  as  the  meeting-point 
of,  or  link  between,  the  sciences  of  nature  and  the  humanities. 

375.    Economic  and  sociological  research. — In  no  field  of  the 


224  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

Christian  educational  system  has  research  as  yet  played  a  large 
part.  But  in  comparison  with  the  efforts  made  to  promote  and 
maintain  it  in  either  medicine  and  surgery  or  in  applied  science, 
the  claim  of  economic  and  social  investigation  has  been  almost 
ignored.  The  Peking  Union  Medical  College  in  the  sphere  of 
medicine,  and  the  Agricultural  Department  of  Nanking  University 
in  the  sphere  of  applied  science,  have  no  counterpart  in  the  sphere 
of  sociology.  There  are  welcome  signs  of  individual  activity  in  this 
direction  in  one  or  two  university  departments  of  economics  or 
sociology.  But  in  relation  to  the  magnitude  of  the  issues  at  stake, 
the  field  of  sociological  research  in  China  is  almost  untouched.  The 
reason  of  its  neglect  cannot  be  mainly  the  expense  involved.  In 
comparison  with  the  equipment  required  for  the  building  and  en- 
dowment of  a  first-class  medical  school  or  of  almost  any  branch 
of  applied  science,  the  cost  of  an  effective  and  fruitful  scheme  of 
economic  and  social  investigation  is  small.  It  demands  a  limited 
number  of  highly-trained  men  to  direct  it  and  a  great  deal  of 
devoted  labor  and  voluntary  cooperative  effort  to  prosecute  it,  but 
comparatively  little  technical  apparatus.  Probably  all  that  is 
needed  to  bring  it  into  existence  is  a  full  realization  by  those  re- 
sponsible for  the  Christian  system  of  education  of  how  funda- 
mentally important  it  is  to  the  cause  of  Christianity  in  China. 
If  the  recent  history  of  western  Europe  and  America  teaches  us 
anything,  it  is  that  the  application  of  Christianity  to  the  sphere 
of  industrial  and  social  healing  is  every  whit  as  important  as  its 
application  to  the  sphere  of  physical  healing.  But  no  remedial 
treatment  can  be  suggested  which  is  not  based  on  as  careful  a 
diagnosis  of  social  tendencies  and  diseases  as  that  which  the  doctor 
makes  of  the  ills  which  affect  the  human  organism. 

III.    Proposals 

It  is  not  suggested  that  all  the  proposals  which  follow  can 
be  immediately  carried  out.  They  are  intended  to  indicate  the 
lines  along  which  the  Christian  educational  forces  can  gradually 
be  brought  to  bear  on  the  problems  outlined  above. 


EDUCATION  IN  THE  SOCIAL  APPLICATION  225 

376.    More  effective  teaching  of  the  social  sciences. — 

a.  This  must  depend  largely  upon  the  lead  given  to  the 
middle  schools  by  the  colleges.  An  urgent  task  for  the  university 
departments  of  history,  geography,  economics,  and  sociology  is 
cooperation  in  working  out  a  synthetic  treatment  of  the  material 
involved  in  these  closely  related  subjects,  with  the  special  object 
of  elucidating  the  conditions  of  life  and  the  problems  of  modern 
China. ^ 

b.  In  particular  it  may  be  urged  that  the  greatly  in- 
creased fruitfulness  of  the  teaching  of  geography  in  many  west- 
ern countries  has  been  mainly  the  result  of  the  development  of  uni- 
versity departments  emphasizing  human  as  well  as  physical  geogra- 
phy and  keeping  in  as  close  touch  with  history  and  economics  as 
with  the  natural  sciences. 

c.  All  the  departments  named  above  must  be  sufficiently 
well-stafifed  to  allow  not  only  of  good  teaching  but  of  the  produc- 
tion of  a  literature  in  history,  geography,  and  applied  economics 
suitable  to  the  needs  of  Far  Eastern  students. 

The  establishment  of  a  few  (post-) graduate  fellowships 
would  go  far  to  achieve  this  end.  It  is  strongly  recommended 
that  a  few  picked  (post-) graduate  students  be  sent  to  universities 
in  Europe  or  America  having  strong  departments  in  these  subjects, 
with  the  specific  object  of  applying  the  methods  of  technique 
which  they  can  there  acquire  to  the  task  of  sifting  and  interpreting 
Far  Eastern  material.  They  should  be  selected  not  only  for  their 
special  aptitudes  in  these  particular  lines  of  study,  but  also  for 
their  potential  capacity  to  influence  the  student  class  by  their  writ- 
ings and  teaching. 

d.  Within  each  higher  educational  area  at  least  one  insti- 
tution should  pay  special  attention  to  the  training  of  teachers  of 
history  and  geography  for  middle  schools. 

^As  an  outstanding  example  of  tlie  value  ot  synthetic  work  of  this  kind  we  may 
refer   to   Prof.   J.    Cviji(5,   "La    Peninsule   Balkanique"    (Paris,    1918),   a    combination   of 
geographical,  historical   and  economic  research  which   results  in  a  wonderfully  vivid  and 
,    definite  picture  of  modern  Balkan  problems  and  the  factors  in  their  solution. 


226  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

e.  A  special  course  should  be  provided  for  students  in 
the  final  year  of  the  middle  school  dealing  specifically  with  the 
problems  of  modern  China,  utilizing  the  ideas  and  the  data  obtained 
from  the  study  of  history  and  geography,  and  bringing  to  bear 
upon  them  the  principles  of  ethics  and  religion. 

377.  Organised  research  into  social  and  economic  conditions 
and  problems  of  modern  China. — The  work  contemplated  under 
this  head  demands  a  dififerent  approach  from  that  of  the  more 
academic  studies  discussed  in  preceding  paragraphs.  That  it  may 
bear  directly  upon  the  solution  of  the  economic  and  social  prob- 
lems now  facing  or  certain  to  face  China,  this  research  must  in- 
volve the  closest  cooperation  of  academic  workers  with  those  more 
directly  in  touch  with  the  every-day  life  of  the  people.  Otherwise 
such  work  tends  to  be  either  too  theoretical  and  academic  to  be  of 
much  practical  value,  or  too  unscientific  to  form  a  basis  for  a 
coherent  programme  of  social  reform.  Fortunately  the  Christian 
system  of  education  is  already  in  close  touch  with  practical  workers 
in  the  field,  and  it  should  not  be  difficult  to  forge  the  links  in  the 
chain. 

a.  It  is  highly  desirable  to  formulate  a  comprehensive 
programme  of  the  problems  to  be  investigated,  through  a  national 
committee  representative  of  all  the  main  agencies  capable  of  taking 
part  in  the  work.  This  committee  should  map  out  the  field  as  a 
whole,  and  in  particular  determine  the  major  problems  to  the  eluci- 
dation of  which  the  study  of  minor  and  more  specific  problems 
should  contribute.  Probably  one  of  the  most  important  of  these 
major  problems  is  indicated  by  the  question.  What  is  going  to  be 
the  interaction  between  agriculture,  craftsmanship,  and  industry 
resulting  from  the  economic  development  of  Chinese  resources  on 
western  lines?  That  the  introduction  of  industrialism  has  pro- 
found and  far-reaching  effects  on  the  relationship  between  dififer- 
ent economic  and  social  groups,  on  class  diflferentiation,  and  indeed 
on  the  whole  structure  of  society  is  evidenced  not  alone  by  the 
economic  history  of  Western  Europe  and  America.  An  important 
piece  of  recent  investigation  has  shown  that  the  coming  of  indus- 
trialism to   India  is  aft'ecting  the  economic  character  of   village 


EDUCATION  IN  THE  SOCIAL  APPLICATION  227 

life  in  purely  rural  districts.  It  is  therefore  suggested  that  a 
special  effort  be  made  to  coordinate  rural  and  urban  sociological 
work  in  order  to  reach  the  most  important  conclusions  as  to  new 
tendencies  in  the  economic  and  social  life  of  China. 

b.  Profoundly  impressed  by  the  magnitude  of  the  issues 
involved,  the  Commission  recommends  that  as  early  as  possible  the 
investigation  of  the  larger  questions  be  assigned  to  a  central  Insti- 
tute of  Economic  and  Social  Research  developed  as  a  school  of 
(post-) graduate  study  in  connection  with  university  departments 
of  economics  and  sociology.  This  Institute  should  be  recognized 
as  the  clearing-house  for  all  information  collected  in  the  course 
of  local  investigations  in  any  part  of  the  field  covered  by  Chris- 
tian education,  on  such  questions  as  the  following :  ( i )  the  eco- 
nomic position  and  prospects  of  handicrafts  of  different  kinds  as 
affected  by  the  introduction  of  machinery,  factory  organization  and 
other  new  elements;  (2)  changes  in  the  character  of  land  tenure 
in  progress  in  China  and  the  social  consequences  involved;  (3) 
experiments  in  industrial  cooperation  and  in  factory  organization ; 
(4)  redistribution  of  population  in  relation  to  industrial  and  agri- 
cultural development ;  (5)  the  causes  of  famines  and  the  economics 
of  famine  relief. 

The  Commission  believes  that  the  establishment  of  this 
Institute,  staffed  by  Christian  men  with  expert  economic  training, 
would  lead  to  the  accumulation  and  interpretation  of  sociological 
material  invaluable  for  and  probably  indispensable  to  any  far- 
reaching  scheme  of  social  reconstruction. 

c.  Investigation  and  elucidation  of  the  larger  issues  must, 
however,  presuppose  detailed  local  surveys  and  studies.  The 
methods  of  Regional  Survey  worked  out  in  western  Europe  and 
America  would  undoubtedly  yield  most  valuable  results  in  China, 
as  an  important  experiment  made  in  Peking  already  shows. 
("Peking.  A  Social  Survey,"  by  S.  D.  Gamble  and  J.  S.  Bur- 
gess.) It  is  strongly  urged  that  all  survey  work  of  tliis  kind  in 
large  centres,  such  as  Shanghai  and  Peking,  be  undertaken  by  the 
university  departments  concerned,  working  in  close  cooperation 
with  the  Young  Men's  and  Young  Women's  Christian  Associations, 


228  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

and  with  all  other  groups  interested  in  social  progress,  such  as  the 
recently  formed  Industrial  Fellowship  in  Shanghai.  There  should 
be  in  each  centre  a  local  committee  of  social  investigation  and  social 
service,  keeping  these  different  groups  of  workers  in  constant 
touch  with  each  other. 

The  precise  relationship  of  the  universities  to  the  Chris- 
tian Associations  in  the  scheme  must  no  doubt  depend  upon  local 
conditions,  but  it  is  clear  that  their  functions  would  be  distinct 
and  complementary.  It  should  be  the  province  of  the  university 
departments  to  provide  high-grade  training  in  the  principles  of 
sociological  science  and  in  the  methods  of  research,  to  supervise 
and  direct  the  general  plan  of  investigation,  and  to  study  and 
interpret  the  data  collected.  It  would  be  the  part  of  the  Young 
Men's  Christian  Association  and  Young  Women's  Christian  Asso- 
ciation, to  open  up  the  necessary  avenues  of  work,  to  establish 
contact  with  merchants,  emplo3'ers  and  others  who  could  facili- 
tate the  investigation,  to  enroll  volunteer  workers  and  to  give 
publicity  to  the  results  obtained,  by  exhibitions,  demonstrations, 
and  lectures  held  on  their  premises. 

As  soon  as  possible  there  should  be  established  in  the 
heart  of  the  industrial  districts  such  as  Yangtszepoo,  (Shanghai), 
and  in  Tangshan  (which  best  focus  the  new  forces  at  work  in 
China),  settlements  of  the  type  of  Toynbee  Hall,  London.  The 
immense  value  of  these  settlements  in  the  industrial  districts  of 
the  West  is  well  known.  They  have  probably  rendered  more  ser- 
vice to  the  cause  of  industrial  and  social  betterment  than  any  other 
single  agency.    Their  functions  would  be  three- fold : 

(i)  They  are  the  best  possible  laboratories  for  direct 
social  investigation,  especially  if  they  are  under  the  care  of  a 
warden  who  is  himself  a  well-trained  sociologist. 

(2)  They  can  be  made  centres  of  adult  education  and 
the  headquarters  of  all  movements  which  exist  to  humanize  the 
conditions  of  life  in  congested  districts. 

(3)  They  provide  the  means  by  which  university  stu- 
dents and  others  can  be  brought  into  direct  contact  with  the  life 
and  essential  needs  of  labor.    Thus  they  do  something  to  mitigate 


EDUCATION  IN  THE  SOCIAL  APPLICATION  229 

that  evil  segregation  of  classes  which  is,  so  often,  one  of  the  worst 
results  of  industrialism. 

The  Commission  expresses  the  hope  that  settlements  of 
this  kind  will  represent  the  joint  effort  of  all  the  missionary  bodies 
and  all  the  churches  at  work  in  the  district.  There  is  no  aspect 
of  Christian  work  which  calls  more  for  union  or  in  which  there 
is  less  excuse  for  the  absence  of  union  than  in  the  attempt  to 
work  out  the  social  expressions  of  Christianity. 


CHAPTER    IX 
EDUCATION  IN  LAW  AND  POLITICAL  SCIENCE 

I.    Law 

3/8.  In  considering  the  possibility  of  bringing  the  field  of 
law  within  the  scope  of  Christian  education  in  China,  we  may 
well  glance  for  a  moment  at  some  outstanding  characteristics  of 
Chinese  law.  We  discover  at  once  a  vast  difference  between  the 
legal  system  and  procedure  in  China  and  that  in  Europe  and 
America.  Outside  of  port  cities  and  other  places  where  there  is 
legal  contact  between  the  Chinese  and  foreigners,  there  is  not 
much  reliance  upon  law  as  a  westerner  conceives  law.  Opinion 
in  China  holds  the  family  responsible  in  considerable  part  for  the 
conduct  of  its  members.  In  Chinese  thought  there  is  nothing 
irrational  in  punishing  a  family  for  the  wrong-doing  of  one  of  its 
members.  There  does  not  seem  to  be  any  thought  of  a  mystic 
bond  making  the  members  of  the  family  parts  of  one  another, 
when  a  community  proceeds  to  such  punishment.  The  assumption 
is  the  very  plain  and  practical  one  that  the  family  is  responsible 
for  keeping  its  separate  members  from  wrong  courses. 

379.  Another  body  of  legal  procedure  which  is  really  extra- 
legal is  that  of  the  craft  and  merchant  guilds.  In  China  these 
guilds  have  a  standing  which  no  city  or  provincial  or  national 
authority  would  for  a  moment  think  of  questioning.  In  all  matters 
dealing  with  violations  of  rules  governing  trade  or  the  manufac- 
ture of  goods,  the  guild  seems  to  be  the  final  authority.  Even  if 
a  guild  should  decree  and  carry  out  a  death  penalty,  what  we 
would  call  the  state  would  not  be  likely  to  raise  serious  question. 

230 


LAW  AND  POLITICAL  SCIENCE  231 

Village  procedure  does  not  seem  closely  to  follow  the 
formal  code.  If  the  offense  does  not  lie  strictly  within  the  scope 
of  family  authority,  or  if  it  is  not  a  guild  problem,  the  village 
takes  note  of  it  through  the  agency  of  the  elders.  These  elders, 
following  out  an  essentially  patriarchial  custom,  assess  the  blame 
and  penalty  according  to  informal  standards  which  have  really 
grown  out  of  the  precedents  of  generations.  We  are  speaking  of 
actual  legal  procedure.  China  has  had  for  centuries  most  elaborate 
codified  legal  systems  of  remarkable  acumen.  For  example  no 
system  of  law  draws  out  more  clearly  the  fact  that  the  guilt  of 
murder  depends  on  the  intention  of  the  wrongdoer  than  does  the 
Chinese.  But  the  Chinese  formal  penalties  are  so  extreme  that  in 
practice  the  emphasis  is  upon  informal  procedure,  avoiding  the 
courts  as  far  as  possible. 

380.  We  are  not  sure  that  this  Chinese  custom  of  legal  pro- 
cedure, which  recognizes  so  slightly  the  formal  codified  system, 
can  be  substantially  disturbed  to  advantage.  Some  of  the  fore- 
most students  of  law  in  Europe  and  America  to-day  are  raising 
the  question  whether  law  in  western  lands  is  not  becoming  over- 
centralized  in  the  state  and  over-codified.  Earnest  political 
thinkers  are  asking  whether  it  would  not  be  better  to  have  some 
actions  now  punishable  by  formal  state  law  taken  notice  of  by 
trade  or  professional  associations.  And  everywhere  there  is  in- 
creasing emphasis  on  the  wisdom  of  settling  cases  out  of  court. 

381.  Even  if  China's  way  of  settling  cases  which  in  other 
countries  would  go  to  law  courts  be  not  disturbed,  there  is,  how- 
ever, the  greatest  need  for  the  Christian  missionaries  to  bring 
more  and  more  of  the  spirit  of  Christ  into  the  settlement  of  dis- 
putes by  families  and  guilds  and  villages,  and  by  the  constituted 
Chinese  authorities,  where  these  are  resorted  to.  Especially  do  we 
urge  that  in  all  such  matters  the  progress  of  Christianity  shall 
show  itself  in  more  and  more  stress  on  the  rights  of  the  individual. 
The  distinctive  mark  of  the  Christian  religion  is  not  merely  the  idea 
of  God  but  the  idea  of  the  worth  of  the  individual  as  a  human 
being.  Admitting  as  we  all  must  that  the  survival  of  China  is  in 
large  part  due  to  her  age-long  emphasis  on  the  group,  we  must 


232  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

urge  that  after  all  the  test  of  the  worth  of  a  group  after  it  sur- 
vives is  the  dignity  and  worth  attaching  to  the  individual. 

382.  Some  Chinese  students  go  to  America  and  England  to 
be  trained  for  the  practice  of  law  in  American  and  English  courts 
in  Shanghai.  It  has  come  to  our  attention  that  some  such  lawyers 
are  setting  a  high  standard  of  professional  efficiency.  And"  we  call 
attention  also  to  the  fact  that  there  is  in  Shanghai  what  is  known  as 
the  Mixed  Court,  in  which  a  foreign  assessor  sits  on  the  same 
bench  with  the  Chinese  magistrate.  Such  a  mixed  court  gives,  of 
course,  unusual  opportunity  for  both  Chinese  and  foreigners  to 
learn  the  strong  and  weak  points  of  both  Chinese  and  foreign  legal 
procedure. 

383.  The  change  in  the  status  of  China  from  a  monarchy 
to  a  republic,  her  increasing  intimacy  with  foreign  nations,  and 
the  introduction  of  western  industrialism,  will  no  doubt  lead  soon 
to  a  greater  emphasis  on  written  law.  The  relations  to  foreign 
nations  will  necessarily  have  to  take  the  form  of  written  enact- 
ment. Whether  extra-territoriality  is  abandoned  or  not,  we  are 
quite  confident  that  the  increasing  contact  of  China  with  foreign 
nations  will  lead  to  an  enlargement  of  the  sphere  of  written  law, 
and  we  expect  that  the  solidification  of  the  republican  form  of 
government  will  work  in  the  same  direction.  It  is  usually  the 
case,  when  a  nation  makes  a  marked  change  in  her  form  of  gov- 
ernment, and  where  there  are  no  great  traditions  or  customs  to 
guide  her,  tTiat  resort  is  had  to  definite  written  enactment  of  law. 
As  a  matter  of  course,  industrialism  implies  great  emphasis  on  the 
written  contract,  and  judicial  procedure  resulting  therefrom. 

384.  We  believe  that  the  method  of  the  teaching  of  law 
planned  for  the  union  school  in  Shanghai  will  be  productive  of 
good.  As  we  understand  it,  this  school  aims  at  instruction  in  the 
direction  which  the  development  of  law  should  take,  and  not 
merely  at  the  exposition  of  existing  codes.  Some  years  ago  the 
Harvard  Law  School  announced  the  establishment  of  a  chait  to 
give  instruction  in  forming  the  growing  social  consciousness  of 
communities,  so  that  the  dead  hand  of  the  past  might  not  restrain 
the  community  animated  by  the  spirit  of  the  future.     For  legal 


LAW  AND  POLITICAL  SCIENCE  233 

education  conceived  in  this  broad  way  we  think  that  there  will  be 
significant  place  in  a  system  of  Christian  education  in  China. 

385.  In  whatever  system  of  law  China  works  out  for  herself, 
the  judge,  or  whoever  performs  judicial  functions,  will  necessarily 
continue  to  occupy  a  central  place.  From  the  beginning  of  men's 
attempts  to  live  together  an  upright  and  just  judicial  system  has 
been,  on  the  part  of  communities  everywhere,  an  object  of  desire, 
desire  so  often  disappointed  that  in  many  lands  an  incorruptible 
judiciary  is  looked  upon  as  an  unrealizable  dream.  And  yet  such 
a  judiciary  is  theoretically  at  least  more  easily  attainable  than 
most  social  blessings,  for  judicial  uprightness  is  so  largely  personal 
that  excuse  for  default  can  not  often  be  laid  upon  a  system.  Here 
is  a  field  where  the  emphasis  on  personal  fitness  can  have  a  benefi- 
cial social  result.  The  church  can,  without  a  radical  departure 
from  the  age-old  message  to  the  individual,  hold  up  such  an  ideal 
of  personal  probity  and  incorruptibility  that  it  must  have  an  effect 
on  whatever  system  of  judicial  procedure  is  built  up  in  China. 

11.    Political  Science 

386.  There  is  at  present  an  awakened  interest  in  China  in  the 
studv  of  political  science.  The  general  political  ferment  in  the 
world  since  the  close  of  the  World  War  is  partly  responsible  for 
tliis,  and  the  change  through  which  China  herself  is  passing  makes 
political  study  most  attractive  to  Chinese  youths. 

We  call  attention  to  some  tendencies  in  the  teaching  of 
political  science  which  we  think  should  be  kept  in  mind  in  the 
instruction  of  Chinese  students. 

a.  The  dependence  of  political  science  upon  economic 
science.  We  are  not  submitting  to  any  doctrine  of  economic  deter- 
minism in  history  when  we  say  that  political  movements  can  hardly 
be  understood  apart  from  a  knowledge  of  economic  history.  It  is 
a  commonplace  to-day  in  political  discussion  that  the  economic 
forces,  shaping  as  they  do  the  daily  activities  of  a  nation's  citizens, 
shape  also  the  way  those  citizens  think  of  political  issues.  More 
than  that,  the  possessors  of  large  economic  forces  have  admittedly 


234  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

to-day  more  control  of  the  shaping  of  legislation  and  the  adminis- 
tration of  law  than  did  kings  when  their  divine  right  was  every- 
where conceded. 

b.  The  possibility  of  controlling  economic  forces  by  high 
ideals  of  political  action.  Within  the  last  quarter-century  the  ma- 
terialistic interpretation  of  history  has  been  qualified  by  emphasis 
on  the  part  ideals  play  in  human  affairs.  Powerful  as  are  the 
economic  forces,  they  do  not  work  with  a  blind  inevitability.  They 
can  be  brought  under  purposeful  control. 

c.  The  need  of  right  choice  among  these  ideals.  Russia 
to-day,  for  example,  is  not  the  outcome  of  the  working  of  economic 
forces  alone.  The  force  of  a  political  and  social  ideal  in  Russia 
is  quite  as  important  as  the  material  situation.  Political  and  social 
ideals  all  have  histories;  they  make  certain  appeals  to  logic;  they 
make  certain  claims  also  as  to  their  power  of  dealing  with  given 
situations  in  native  and  human  nature.  All  these  phases  of  ideals 
are  open  to  study.  It  is,  then,  folly  to  think  that  zeal  for  reform, 
no  matter  how  well-intentioned,  will  enable  us  to  decide  which 
ideals  are  most  worthy  to  be  followed.  Decision  can  be  reached 
only  by  scholarly  investigation. 

d.  In  the  consideration  of  social  ideals  the  Christian  em- 
phasis must  be  placed  on  the  human  values.  Christianity  came 
into  the  world  to  exalt  a  certain  idea  of  God  and  a  certain  ideal 
of  human  life.  The  ideal  of  human  life  must  of  necessity  work 
out  into  expression  in  political  terms.  We  insist  that  all  political 
questions  must  be  approached  from  the  point  of  view  of  the  largest 

.human  welfare,  and  that  they  cannot  to-day  be  really  studied 
without  such  approach.  For  this  reason  we  think  they  should  have 
a  large  place  in  Christian  education. 


CHAPTER  X 

INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION  AND  ENGINEERING 
I.    Industrial  Education 

387.  There  are  at  least  three  outstanding  reasons  why  com- 
mercial and  industrial  training  should  have  a  place  in  any  scheme 
of  Christian  education  in  China.  First,  there  is  the  Christian  duty 
of  doing  all  that  is  possible  in  the  relief  of  poverty.  Let  it  be  ad- 
mitted that  the  fundamental  cause  of  poverty  in  China  is  over- 
population. It  seems  at  times  as  if  in  China  the  doctrine  of 
Malthus  were  being  abundantly  verified,  and  that  if  it  were  not 
for  nature's  way  of  restoring  equilibrium  between  population  and 
natural  resources  through  famine  and  flood  and  plague,  China 
would  soon  reach  the  place  where  she  could  not  keep  her  people 
from  outright  starvation.  Professor  E.  A.  Ross  estimates  that  in 
China  five  generations  are  brought  forth  in  a  period  of  time  during 
which  the  land  can  support  not  more  than  four.  It  is  claimed  by 
manv  social  students.  Professor  Ross  among  them,  that  poverty 
cannot  be  remedied  in  China  until  the  Chinese  thought  of  the 
family  is  transformed ;  that  ancestor-worship  and  the  desire  for 
sons  to  carry  on  the  family  are  responsible  for  forcing  the  birth- 
rate up  to  an  abnormally  high  figure ;  that  until  this  radical  change 
takes  place  in  Chinese  thought  anything  that  will  tend  to  lower  the 
death-rate  will  only  make  a  bad  situation  worse.  We  may  admit  all 
this  and  still  insist  that  there  is  a  large  possibility  of  relief  of 
poverty  in  China  by  better  utilization  of  material  resources.  It  may 
be  true  that  in  agriculture  the  land  is  making  as  large  return  as 
could  be  expected  from  the  introduction  of  large  scale  methods, 

235 


236  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

which  might  dislocate  the  whole  scheme  of  Chinese  rural  and 
village  life,  but  the  most  conservative  estimates  indicate  that  there 
are  large  mineral  and  other  resources  as  yet  untouched.  If  these 
could  be  made  available  for  China,  the  relief  of  poverty  would  be 
substantial.  Much  of  China's  vast  labor  force  is  uneconomically 
applied.  If  it  be  true,  as  is  asserted,  that  twenty  per  cent  of  the 
labor  force  of  China  is  employed  in  some  form  of  transportation, 
we  can  see  what  an  improvement  in  economic  conditions  would  be 
brought  about  if,  by  the  introduction  of  steam  transportation,  this 
labor  could  be  released  for  other  forms  of  production  introduced 
at  the  same  time.  The  changes  that  are  bound  to  come  in  the  next 
quarter  century  make  necessary  the  training  of  the  Chinese  to 
take  their  part  in  the  reorganization  of  Chinese  industry,  for  the 
sake  of  larger  material  return  to  the  Chinese  people.  This  devel- 
opment must  be  accompanied  by  greatly  increased  consumption  on 
the  part  of  the  Chinese  themselves.  The  efifect  of  the  industriali- 
zation of  China  on  world  industry  is  another  problem. 

388.  A  second  reason  for  the  emphasis  on  commercial  and 
industrial  education  in  China  is  the  possibility  of  a  better  utiliza- 
tion of  the  human  resources  of  the  country  by  giving  to  promising 
youths  a  chance  to  fit  themselves  for  larger  responsibilities  than 
they  can  assume  if  they  are  deprived  of  educational  opportunity. 
One  charge  brought  against  the  industrial  system  in  Europe  and 
America  is  that  it  stifles  talent,  that  it  wastes  genius  because  it 
gives  youths  no  chance  to  reveal  the  possibilities  of  their  intellec- 
tual attainment.  The  charge  is  often  made  that  it  is  the  genius 
in  literature  and  art  who  goes  undiscovered  if  there  is  no  opportu- 
nity for  early  education,  but  it  is  just  as  true  that  the  modern 
industrial  system  deprives  youths  of  their  chance  to  show  what 
they  could  do  in  business  organization  or  in  industrial  management. 
If  this  be  true  in  Europe  and  America,  how  much  more  must  it 
be  true  in  China.  One  of  the  most  appalling  reflections  as  one 
looks  upon  a  Chinese  multitude  is  the  potential  ability  which  is 
going  to  waste  because  of  lack  oi  discovery  and  of  training  of  high 
talent  through  educational  opportunity.  If  it  is  true  that  in  the 
end  China  must  have  her  own  political  and  religious  leaders,  it  is 


INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION  AND  ENGINEERING  237 

also  true  that  she  must  have  her  own  commercial  and  industrial 
leaders.  If  a  system  of  industrial  education  could  be  devised  in 
any  land  that  would  even  once  in  a  generation  discover  an  industrial 
mind  of  the  first  order,  that  one  discovery  would  justify  the  system ; 
but  even  a  larger  justification  would  attend  the  lifting  of  the  gen- 
eral industrial  and  commercial  leadership  of  a  generation  to  higher 
efficiency. 

389.  The  third  reason  for  emphasis  on  the  necessity  of 
making  a  place  in  the  scheme  of  Christian  education  for  commer- 
cial and  industrial  training  is  the  duty  of  Christianizing  the  com- 
mercial and  industrial  order.  This  is  as  imperative  a  duty  as  any 
that  now  confronts  Christianity  in  China.  We  have  spoken  of  the 
need  of  industrial  development  in  China.  That  development  is 
bound  to  come.  A  most  pressing  duty  is  to  see  that  it  comes 
purged  of  some  of  the  evil  forms  it  has  assumed  in  the  West. 
Oriental  students  have  been  so  impressed  by  the  evils  of  Occidental 
industrialism  that  they  have  pronounced  it  a  flat  denial  and  con- 
tradiction of  the  Christianity  which  we  profess  and  preach.  Cer- 
tainly the  Oriental  can  be  pardoned  for  failing  to  see  the  doctrine 
of  human  brotherhood  in  western  industrialism.  Nor  is  he  to  be 
blamed  if  he  fails  to  see  much  emphasis  on  the  Christian  idea  of 
human  values  in  that  industrialism. 

390.  There  are  three  agencies  through  which  an  industrial 
system  can  be  changed  for  the  better.  First,  and  most  important, 
is  the  force  of  public  opinion.  In  any  serious  struggle  for  larger 
human  emphasis  in  industry  the  appeal  is  always  to  public  opinion. 
Now  public  opinion  acts  sometimes  through  positive  enactment 
and  sometimes  less  formally,  but  when  it  acts  its  action  is  decisive. 
We  regret  to  say  that  we  do  not  now  find  in  China  a  public  opinion 
to  which  direct  appeal  can  be  made  with  any  large  promise  of 
success  in  this  matter.  For  if  the  pressure  of  public  opinion  is  to 
be  helpful  in  industrial  progress  it  must  be  continuously  applied. 
A  mere  popular  outburst  will  not  avail  in  setting  more  human 
standards.  There  is  no  doubt  a  growing  public  consciousness  in 
China,  but  just  now  it  takes  the  form  of  expression  on  national 
and  political,  rather  than  on  industrial,  matters.    The  simple  and 


238  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

tragic  fact  seems  to  be  that  the  masses  of  China  have  seen  so 
much  of  hard  and  desperate  labor  by  human  beings  that  they  have 
become  calloused  to  such  sights.  Those  instantaneous  feelings  of 
horror  which  the  traveller  from  the  West  has  when  he  first  lands 
in  China  and  sees  men  straining  at  loads  that  horses  or  motors 
should  pull  are  frequently  dulled  after  he  has  been  in  the  Orient 
for  a  season.  We  cannot  yet  expect  much  from  a  public  accustomed 
always  to  such  sights,  and  we  have  every  reason  to  be  charitable 
toward  a  Chinese  public  opinion  which  takes  scant  heed  of  hard- 
ship in  labor. 

391.  The  second  agency  through  which  industrial  progress 
comes  is  the  effort  of  the  laborers  themselves,  usually  exerted 
through  some  form  of  organization.  Taking  England,  as  ad- 
mittedly the  most  advanced  of  modern  nations  in  the  status  of  the 
laborer  as  to  hours  of  work,  conditions  of  shop,  and  terms  of  hire 
and  discharge,  we  should  have  to  admit  that  if  we  dropped  out 
all  the  gains  made  by  organized  effort  and  insistence  of  the  work- 
ers themselves,  there  would  be  very  little  left.  Now  it  must  be 
conceded  at  once  that  the  Chinese  have  extraordinary  capacities 
of  organization.  There  is  hardly  anything  superior  to  the  Chi- 
nese craft  and  merchant  guilds  for  sheer  social  effectiveness.  In 
estimating  the  factors  which  have  enabled  China  to  hold  her  own 
commercially  since  her  ports  were  opened  to  the  world,  we  must 
give  a  large  place  to  the  guild  system. 

392.  But  here  again  there  are  almost  insuperable  difficul- 
ties where  we  are  dealing  with  the  approaching  industrialization 
of  China.  The  reservoirs  from  which  industrialism  can  draw  are 
so  vast  that  effective  organization  of  workers  would  be  fearfully 
difficult.  The  temptation  of  multitudes  of  half-starving  men  to 
"scab"  on  one  another  would  be  almost  irresistible,  especially 
since  even  the  hardest  mill  conditions  would  not  be  as  hard  at 
the  outset  as  the  conditons  under  which  the  ordinary  ricksha 
man,  for  example,  now  does  his  work.  The  possibilities  of  such 
organization,  even  among  coolies,  are  always  serious  enough,  how- 
ever, to  give  an  employer,  tempted  to  exploitation,  cause  for  fear. 
A  recent  letter  in  a  Shanghai  newspaper  voiced  the  alarm  of  some 


INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION  AND  ENGINEERING  239 

foreigner  that  the  organization  of  ricksha  men  in  Shanghai  was 
being  furthered  by  Bolshevists, 

393.  There  remains,  then,  one  other  agency  through  which 
force  can  be  brought  to  bear  for  the  Christianization,  or  what 
comes  to  the  same  thing,  the  humanization  of  Chinese  industry. 
That  is  the  Christian  business  man  or  industrial  leader.  There 
need  be  no  denying  that  such  a  task  presents  to  the  business  man 
appalHng  difficulties,  but  there  is  ground  for  hope.  We  have 
found  Chinese  business  men  who  seem  sincerely  anxious  about 
giving  their  employees  as  fair  wages  and  as  good  shop  conditions 
as  the  business  will  warrant ;  and  such  men  are  the  hope  of  the 
future.  If  we  can  have  an  increasing  number  of  them  they  will 
not  only  be  of  help  to  their  own  employees,  but  they  will  have 
an  influence  both  on  the  consciousness  of  the  laborer  and  on 
public  opinion. 

394.  We  must  not  cherish  any  delusions  as  to  the  nature 
of  the  task  we  are  proposing.  If  China  is  in  any  degree  to  be 
preserved  from  the  evils  of  industrialism  through  the  efforts  and 
character  of  Christian  Chinese  business  leaders,  those  leaders 
must  be  of  a  stamp  not  yet  produced  in  sufficient  number  either 
in  England  or  America  to  Christianize  industry.  The  new  leaders 
must  be  prepared  to  make  some  thorough-going  and  fundamental 
changes  in  the  industrial  system.  Especially  must  modern  in- 
dustrialism take  on  a  new  spirit  in  China,  the  spirit  of  service 
as  over  against  that  of  private  gain.  It  is  not  to  be  expected  that 
men  who  have  money  will  invest  it  in  Chinese  industry  without 
hope  of  return.  But  there  is  a  vast  difference  between  fair  re- 
turn upon  an  investment,  and  exploitation  of  a  nation's  resources 
in  material  and  in  men.  The  plain  fact  is  that  China  is  to-day 
one  of  the  richest  prizes  before  the  industrial  world ;  and  the  at- 
tractiveness is  quite  as  much  in  her  exploitable  labor  as  in  her  un- 
touched mineral  resources.  In  Europe  and  America  labor  has  so 
far  won  its  battle  that  wages  must  be  considered  as  a  larger  ele- 
ment in  cost  of  production  than  ever  before ;  and  no  matter 
how  much  wages  may  be  reduced,  they  will  never  go  back  to  the 
old  figure  of  ten  or  fifteen  years  ago.     Before  investment-seek- 


240  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

ing  industrialists,  the  four  hundred  millions  of  Chinese  present 
a  field  tempting  beyond  all  imagination.  If  Chinese  leaders,  or 
leaders  interested  in  China,  are  to  save  the  country  from  ex- 
ploitation, their  voices  must  be  strong  enough  to  carry  practically 
around  the  world,  for  it  will  be  a  world-wide  pressure  against 
which  they  will  have  to  contend.  If  the  perils  of  industrialism 
seem  slight  to  us,  let  us  ask  ourselves  what  will  happen  if  ten 
million  Chinese  are  employed  at  low  wages  in  mills  and  then  are 
thrown  out  of  employment  by  a  trade  fluctuation?  Science  may 
indeed  find  some  way  of  preventing  the  overflow  of  the  Yellow 
River.  She  has  not  yet  found  a  way  of  dealing  with  unemploy- 
ment. Unemployment  in  industrialized  China  would  be  as  deadly 
as  a  flood  of  the  Yellow  River. 

395-  While  the  wider  world-phases  of  the  industrialization 
of  China  lie,  strictly  speaking,  beyond  the  scope  of  this  Report, 
it  may  be  well  for  us  to  note  that  if  China  is  industrialized  with- 
out such  elevation  of  wage-standards  as  will  bring  them  into  some 
conformity  to  Occidental  standards  the  effect  may  be  world-wide 
calamity.  If  China  sends  upon  western  markets  vast  masses  of 
goods  made  at  present-day  low  labor  costs  (which  costs  in  some 
instances  have  allowed  stock-holders  to  make  profits  of  lOO  per 
cent),  the  effect  will  be  either  that  the  western  nations  will  ex- 
clude such  goods,  which  will  mean  disastrous  unemployment  sea- 
sons in  China,  or  will  admit  them,  to  the  immeasurable  damage 
of  western  labor  standards.  And  out  beyond  all  this  lurk  the  pos- 
sibilities of  international  misunderstanding  and  conflict. 

396.  Such  then  is  the  industrial  condition  and  outlook 
in  China.  Its  seriousness  can  not  be  overlooked.  What  is  to 
be  the  attitude  of  the  Christian  church  towards  it?  Has 
the  church  any  responsibility  for  shaping  this  new  industrialism 
so  that  China  may  be  saved  from  the  ills  that  have  cursed 
Europe  and  America,  and  if  she  has  any  responsibility,  what  can 
she  do? 

To  these  questions  there  can  be  but  one  answer.  The 
church  which  is  seeking  to  create  in  China  a  social  order  that  shall 
be  directed  by  the  spirit  of  Christ  can  not  fail  to  face  this  situation 


INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION  AND  ENGINEERING  241 

and  face  it  in  a  large  way.     The  church  will  be  untrue  to  its  com- 
mission, if  it  does  not  deal  with  this  situation  heroically. 

The  church  has  only  one  instrument  with  which  to  meet  the 
situation  and  that  is  education.  Through  the  vigorous  prosecution 
of  the  right  kind  of  education  she  may  make  a  great  contribution 
in  Christianizing  the  new  industrialism  of  China.  No  efiforts  less 
than  heroic  will  count,  the  task  is  so  great. 

397.  It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  if  the  church  undertakes 
the  task  of  giving  students  commercial  and  industrial  education 
she  must  not  fail  to  make  the  training  efficient  and  to  keep  alive  the 
Christian  spirit  in  the  men  trained.  For  failure  to  make  the  train- 
ing efficient  would  at  once  lead  to  contempt  for  Christian  education 
in  a  field  where  ready  appeal  can  be  made  to  results  as  a  test  of 
success;  and  failure  to  imbue  the  student  of  commerce  and  in- 
dustry with  a  Christian  spirit  would  be  little  short  of  disaster. 
To  say  nothing  of  the  harm  done  by  the  selfish  or  unsocial  stu- 
dent himself,  the  charge  could  be  brought  with  deadly  effective- 
ness that  Christianity  makes  itself  an  ally  of  the  industrial  system 
by  supplying  that  system  with  Chinese  minds  trained  to  exploit 
their  fellows. 

398.  The  student  who  aspires  to  commercial  and  industrial 
leadership  should  not  fail  to  devote  serious  attention  to  the  more 
human  phases  of  political  economy,  questions  of  population  and 
labor  in  particular.  There  is  nothing  more  common  in  America 
than  for  a  business  leader,  admittedly  successful  according  to 
current  commercial  and  industrial  standards,  to  discuss  labor 
problems  in  terms  which  show  that  he  is  completely  out  of  touch 
with  what  is  going  forward  in  labor  debates  and  even  in  general 
social  discussion.  That  a  man  is  successful  in  business  does  not 
necessarily  mean  that  he  is  an  authority  on  general  social  ques- 
tions, or  the  highest  type  of  authority  even  in  business. 

399.  It  will  be  seen  from  a  reference  to  the  Chapter  on  Sec- 
ondary Schools  (Sections  159,  i66ff.),  that  the  importance  of 
training  for  trades  has  not  been  overlooked.  It  is  not  neces- 
sary for  us,  therefore,  to  make  suggestions  here  as  to  details  of 
curriculum,  either  in  the  middle  schools  or  colleges,  for  the  em- 


242  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

phasis  in  the  Chapters  on  Secondary  and  Collegiate  Education  is 
on  occupational  training. 

400.  It  may  be  permissible  to  say  a  word  about  the  signifi- 
cance of  industrial  teaching. for  its  general  efifect  in  a  nation  like 
China.  Probably  no  nation  has  done  more  in  a  certain  literary 
type  of  scholarship  than  has  China.  But  it  is  the  merest  com- 
monplace that  the  scholar's  life  and  the  manual  worker's  life  have 
been  kept  too  much  apart.  Scholarship  has  busied  itself  with 
problems  remote  from,  or  having  little  bearing  on,  the  actual 
work-a-day  life.  So  that  in  the  higher  intellectual  life  of  China 
there  is  a  lack  of  close  connection  with  the  actual.  Industrial 
training,  if  it  is  seriously  undertaken,  will  be  a  corrective  for 
this  in  China  as  elsewhere.  One  advantage  of  working  with  tools 
is  that  error  is  likely  to  have  immediate  consequences  of  a  painful 
nature.  Moreover,  in  China  and  elsewhere,  students  need  to  learn 
that  scholarship  may  go  hand-in-hand  with  earnest  manual  labor. 
One  way  to  dignify  labor  everywhere  is  to  put  more  science  into 
it,  and  to  make  the  work  of  the  hands  a  test  of  intellectual  capacity. 

401.  We  are  not  so  much  concerned  with  the  details  of  the 
curriculum  in  industrial  education  as  with  its  purpose  and  with 
the  spirit  in  which  it  is  taught.  Work  must  have  a  definite  aim  if 
it  would  make  the  student  earnest  and  serious.  The  trade  schools 
of  the  West  which  have  been  most  satisfactory  have  been  those 
which  have  given  the  pupils  real  tasks  to  perform.  Home  eco- 
nomics courses  in  high  schools,  where  the  young  women  are  not 
seriously  trying  to  learn  how  to  cook,  produce  about  the  same 
sort  of  result  as  do  trade  courses  where  the  occupational  aim  is 
not  positive  and  well-defined.  Occupational  courses  have  clear 
cultural  value,  but  such  value  comes  as  the  worker  loses  himself 
in  the  doing  of  the  work,  knowing  that  his  place  in  the  life  to 
which  he  is  going  is  to  be  determined  by  the  quality  of  his  work  in 
the  school. 

II.    Schools  of  Engineering 

402.  When  we  come  to  the  problem  of  instruction  in  en- 
gineering in  a  system  of  Christian  education,  we  are  in  a  some- 


INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION  AND  ENGINEERING  243 

what  different  realm  from  that  of  commercial  and  industrial  edu- 
cation in  the  sense  in  which  we  have  been  using  the  terms. 
Engineering  is,  of  course,  highly  technical  and  calls  for  most 
expensive  plants  and  equipment.  Moreover,  proficiency  in  engi- 
neering almost  inevitably  leads  to  generous  financial  remunera- 
tion ;  so  that  in  view  of  the  possibility  of  the  engineer  being  well- 
paid  in  his  professional  career,  we  may  well  ask  if  he  should  not 
himself  make  the  financial  outlay  involved  in  training  for  engi- 
neering. For  this  reason,  and  for  others  like  it,  Christian  edu- 
cators often  say  that  those  who  desire  instruction  in  engineering 
should  seek  such  equipment  outside  of  mission  schools,  and  at 
their  own  expense.  It  does  not  indeed  seem  right  to  take  funds 
contributed  by  the  churches,  and  devote  them  to  highly  technical 
and  specialized  instruction,  when  the  mass  of  the  Chinese  youth 
lack  even  the  rudiments  of  the  simplest  education. 

403.  We  must  remember,  however,  that  we  cannot  treat  such 
a  theme  as  this  simply  from  the  point  of  view  of  the  generous 
salaries  or  fees  received  by  engineers.  In  America  the  state  main- 
tains  high-grade  technical  institutions  where  the  fees  paid  by 
students  are  almost  nothing  as  compared  with  the  cost  of  the 
education  of  each  student.  Schools  of  chemical,  electrical,  min- 
ing, mechanical,  sanitary  engineering,  consume  a  large  part  of 
the  funds  year  by  year  appropriated  by  the  legislatures  of  the 
states  to  state  universities.  The  question  as  to  the  size  of  the 
fees  to  be  earned  by  graduate  engineers  is  seldom  raised.  The 
theory  underlying  the  appropriation  is  that  the  importance  of  the 
mastery  of  the  earth  and  its  forces  is  so  great  and  the  general 
benefit  to  society  from  the  work  of  any  engineer  likely  to  com- 
mand large  remuneration  is  so  vast,  as  to  make  the  return  to  the 
engineer  himself  of  small  consequence  in  comparison. 

404.  Again,  we  must  remember  that  engineers  to-day  are 
likely  to  be  men  of  rather  unusually  fine  sense  of  honor.  Engi- 
neering associations  have  codes  of  professional  ethics  which  are 
much  more  than  refinements  of  etiquette.  Sound  moral  princi- 
ples at  least  in  part  form  the  groundwork  of  such  codes.  Again 
expert  engineers  are  likely  to  possess  an  unusually  well  developed 


244  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

social  sense.  Within  the  past  year  two  reports  from  engineers  in 
the  United  States  have  attracted  wide  attention  because  of  the 
social  spirit  which  has  pervaded  them.  One  was  a  report  by  the 
Taylor  Society  of  Philadelphia  in  favor  of  the  eight-hour  day 
in  basic  industries  and  the  other  by  a  committee  of  engineers 
appointed  by  Mr.  Herbert  Hoover  on  the  subject  of  waste  in 
American  industry.  Both  reports,  while  altogether  scientific  in 
their  methods,  were  thoroughly  permeated  with  a  social  spirit. 
In  the  strained  relations  between  employers  and  employed  the 
engineer  has  a  vantage  point  from  which  he  can  work  most  ef- 
fectively to  bring  about  better  understanding  and  adjustment. 
He  knows  by  first-hand  contact  both  the  employer  and  the  em- 
ployed, and  is  so  accustomed  to  deal  with  such  situations  that  he 
is  likely  to  be  able  to  speak  a  final  word  on  the  actual  working 
adjusments  which  ordinarily  settle  labor  difficulties. 

405.  For  such  reasons  as  the  above  the  question  as  to  the 
advisability  of  "giving  engineering  courses  in  schools  supported 
by  Christian  missions  cannot  be  lightly  put  aside.  Still,  we  do  not 
feel  that  the  support  of  such  courses  can  rightly  be  made  a  charge 
upon  the  funds  of  missionary  treasuries  which  come  from  church 
contributions.  We  approve,  however,  of  establishing  courses  in 
engineering  where  funds  for  such  courses  are  available  from 
outside  of  the  regular  channels,  as  through  the  bequests  or  con- 
tributions of  those  who  are  impressed  with  the  importance  of  such 
instruction. 

406.  Where  engineering  courses  are  given,  we  suggest  that 
there  be  given  with  them  such  courses  as  will  keep  before  the 
mind  of  the  students  the  ideals  of  a  Christian  social  order.  It 
would  be  little  short  of  disastrous  for  Christian  schools  to  send 
forth  highly  trained  "experts  who  would  ally  themselves  with  the 
evil  forces  of  an  industrial  order  which  the  Chinese  might  soon 
come  to  look  upon  as  a  part  of  foreign  schemes  of  exploitation. 
We  have  seen  mills  in  China  in  which  little  girls  under  ten  years 
of  age  work  a  thirteen  hour  day  from  five  in  the  morning  to 
six  at  night  in  a  steam-charged  atmosphere,  for  a  wage  of  ten 
cents  a  day.     The  fact  that  these  particular  mills  are  under  Chi- 


INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION  AND  ENGINEERING  245 

nese  management  and  ownership  does  not  make  it  less  imperative 
for  us  to  say  that  if  technically  trained  graduates  of  Christian 
schools  in  China  become  supporting  or  acquiescent  parts  of  such 
a  system  of  exploitation,  such  students  will  soon  be  undoing  a 
large  part  of  the  good  produced  by  Christian  instruction. 

407.  One  word  of  caution  seems  necessary.  The  acceptance 
of  gifts  or  payments  from  manufacturing  concerns  in  return  for 
services  rendered  or  expected,  is,  in  the  present  industrial  situa- 
tion in  China,  dangerous.  No  school  should  in  any  way  abridge 
its  own  freedom  of  teaching  in  the  field  of  social  ethics. 

408.  In  conclusion,  certain  general  considerations  must  be 
kept  in  mind  as  bearing  upon  all  branches  of  service  discussed 
above.  In  all  there  is  need  primarily  and  fundamentally  of  em- 
phasis upon  the  elementary  virtues  of  honesty  and  integrity.  We 
do  not  intend  any  reflection  upon  Chinese  character  when  we  say 
that  the  temptations  to  financial  irregularity  are  peculiarly  strong 
in  China.  The  temptation  to  low  standards  comes  out  of  the  age- 
long struggle  in  China  for  physical  existence.  Thrift  becomes  per- 
verted into  something  quite  other  than  thrift.  In  the  next  place, 
all  lines  of  service,  it  seems  to  us,  should  strive  to  supplement 
the  Chinese  idea  of  the  importance  of  the  group  with  emphasis 
upon  the  inalienable  sacredness  of  the  individual ;  an  emphasis 
which  the  types  of  industrialism  which  are  coming  into  China  do 
not  make.  If  we  could  secure  such  emphasis  many  of  our  most 
difficult  problems  would  be  on  the  way  to  solution.  Finally,  the 
best  work  in  commercial  and  industrial  training  cannot  be  done 
without  unselfish  devotion  to  problems  of  research.  The  willing- 
ness to  deal  with  such  research  problems  is  a  sign  of  real  earnest- 
ness and  sincerity  on  the  part  of  those  using  commerce  and 
industry  for  purposes  of  social  progress. 


CHAPTER  XI 

ADULT  EDUCATION 

409.  In  the  last  two  decades  Adult  Education  has  made  rapid 
strides  in  most  western  countries,  and  in  some  it  seems  likely  to 
occupy  as  important  a  place  in  the  national  scheme  of  instruction 
as  primary,  secondary,  or  university  education.  The  recent  re- 
port of  the  Committee  on  Adult  Education  appointed  by  the 
English  Ministry  of  Reconstruction  is  rightly  regarded  as  a  sig- 
nificant landmark  in  the  history  of  educational  endeavor. 

It  is  important  to  note  the  causes  for  the  great  impetus 
which  the  movement  has  received :  ( i )  It  is  partly  due  to  the  de- 
mand of  labor  for  participation  in  the  intellectual  no  less  than 
in  the  economic  advantages  of  the  professional  classes,  and  to  an 
awakening  mental  curiosity  among  the  artisans  of  the  great  in- 
dustrial centres.  (2)  It  is  partly  the  product  of  the  movement 
towards  social  and  political  democracy,  the  success  of  which,  it 
is  increasingly  realized,  depends  upon  it.  A  really  intelligent 
exercise  of  citizenship  in  the  modern  world  demands  an  equipment 
in  knowledge  and  ideas  for  which  an  ordinary  school  education 
can  do  no  more  than  lay  the  foundations.  (3)  As  a  result  of  the 
war  the  movement  has  been  strengthened  by  a  third  factor  in- 
fluencing not  only  labor  but  the  mercantile  community,  a  desire 
to  understand  the  relationship  of  groups  and  nations  to  each  other 
and  to  discover  the  means  for  building  up  a  better  and  more  stable 
world  order.  As  illustrating  this  aspect  of  its  development  it  is 
interesting  to  notice  that  out  of  the  remarkable  movement  which 
produced  the  Workers'  Educational  Association  and  the  Univer- 
sity Tutorial  Class  Movement  in  England,  there  has  recently  de- 

246 


ADULT  EDUCATION  247 

veloped  the  World  Association  for  Adult  Education,  which  exists 
to  extend  these  activities  to  other  lands  and  to  draw  together  the 
peoples  of  the  world  on  the  following  basis. 

"It  is  the  mission  of  the  World  Association  to  bring  into 
cooperation  and  mutual  relationship  the  adult  educational  move- 
ments and  institutions  of  the  world,  in  order  that  peoples  may 
proceed  in  greater  power  through  wisdom,  the  mother  of  all 
things,  to  knowledge,  and  help  to  bring  about  on  earth  the  finer 
working  of  such  a  political  and  social  order  as  may  minister  to 
more  complete  individual  lives,  and  which  the  several  nations  in 
their  degree  and  place  may  deem  it  wise  to  adopt." 

410.  On  what  basis  and  along  what  lines  may  the  Chinese 
nation  "in  its  degree  and  place"  participate  in  this  great  movement 
towards  the  emancipation  of  the  human  spirit  and  the  solidarity 
of  peoples?  And  what  part  can  the  Christian  system  of  education 
play  in  promoting  an  aim  so  essentially  in  harmony  with  its  own 
ideals  for  China?  The  goal  of  adult  education  must  be  the  same 
in  China  as  in  the  West  if,  as  the  best  of  her  sons  desire,  she  is  to 
take  her  place  among  the  self-governing  democracies  of  the  world. 
But  the  methods  and  machinery  to  be  adopted  must  be  determined 
by  the  historical  background  and  economic  conditions  of  the 
country  and  by  the  stage  of  development  which  its  school  system 
of  education  has  reached.  In  China  we  have  to  reckon  with  cer- 
tain fundamental  facts  in  attempting  to  form  a  policy  for  adult 
education. 

a.  At  least  eighty-five  per  cent  of  the  adult  population 
is  illiterate. 

b.  Many  millions  of  workers  live  under  economic  con- 
ditions which  produce  a  struggle  for  existence  of  almost  un- 
paralleled intensity,  so  that  the  margin  of  leisure  and  energy  left 
over  from  the  struggle  for  existence  is  pitiably  small.  But  as 
against  this  must  be  set  two  statements,  (i)  In  most  country 
districts  there  is  a  period  of  the  year  when  agricultural  work  is 
more  or  less  suspended.  In  the  north  it  is  of  considerable  dura- 
tion, on  the  average  about  three  months  of  winter,  and  even  in  the 
south  it  extends  over  several  weeks.     (2)  In  the  towns,  and  indeed 


248  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

almost  everywhere  there  are  large  numbers  of  adults  with  a  great 
deal  of  time  on  their  hands,  as  the  superfluous  number  of  clerks 
to  be  seen  in  almost  every  shop  abundantly  testifies.  Thus  the 
problem  is  not  wholly  one  of  raising  the  standard  of  comfort 
but  partly  one  of  a  better  and  fairer  distribution  of  labor  and  of 
turning  to  good  account  what  in  the  aggregate  is  an  enormous 
amount  of  idle  time.  The  big  crowds  which  a  well-organised 
course  of  lectures  attracts  in  almost  any  Chinese  city  to-day  is 
witness  to  the  fact  that  immense  opportunities  exist. 

c.  Although  in  China  there  is  a  greater  traditional  re- 
spect for  learning  than  in  almost  any  other  country,  it  has  always 
been  associated  with  a  particular  class.  The  idea  of  an  intimate 
connection  between  labor  and  education  is  quite  foreign  to  tra- 
ditional Chinese  thinking. 

411.  These  circumstances  make  the  problem  of  adult  educa- 
tion very  different  from  that  in  western  countries,  and  in  some 
ways  much  more  difficult.  But  if  it  is  more  difficult  it  is  even 
more  urgent.  There  are  few  greater  needs  in  China  than  that  of 
producing  quickly  an  intelligent  and  educated  public  opinion 
capable  of  exercising  some  control  over  national  affairs.  Polit- 
ically, "China's  Only  Hope,"  to  use  the  title  of  Viceroy  Chang 
Chi  Tung's  well-known  book,  would  seem  to  be  either  a  benevolent 
despotism  or  an  educated  democracy.  All  that  is  most  active  and 
virile  in  Young  China  rejects  the  first  and  desires  the  second. 
But  an  educated  democracy  cannot  be  achieved  by  the  present 
school  and  college  S3^stem,  even  if  it  progresses  at  a  much  more 
rapid  rate  than  now  seems  likely,  in  less  than  three  or  four  genera- 
tions. China  cannot  afford  to  wait  so  long  as  that  for  a  stable 
and  efficient  government,  and  so  numerous  are  the  grave  interna- 
tional issues  involved  that  the  world  as  represented  by  the  Great 
Powers  is  hardly  likely  to  wait  for  it.  Therefore,  it  is  difficult 
to  escape  from  the  conclusion  that  in  an  organised  and  sustained 
campaign  for  adult  education  to  supplement  the  work  of  the 
schools  lies  the  chief  hope  for  the  political  salvation  of  China. 
This  thought  is  undoubtedly  present  in  the  minds  of  thousands  of 
the  more  reflective  young  Chinese  of  the  student  class.     The  most 


ADULT  EDUCATION  249 

hopeful  factor  in  the  whole  situation  is  the  existence  of  what  in 
the  aggregate  is  already  a  great  student  force  capable  of  being 
used  for  this  most  pressing  form  of  social  service.  The  task 
of  those  who  direct  the  movement  for  adult  education  is  both 
to  increase  it  and  to  direct  its  use  to  the  greatest  possible  ad- 
vantage. 

412.  There  is  no  space  in  this  Report  for  any  adequate  re- 
view of  the  present  position  of  adult  education  in  China.  A  most 
useful,  although  incomplete,  summary  is  contained  in  Bulletin 
VIII  of  the  World  Association  for  Adult  Education  under  the 
title  "Adult  Education  in  China."  The  following  generalizations 
may,  however,  be  made. 

a.  Both  the  central  government  at  Peking,  represented 
by  the  Ministry  of  Education,  the  Ministry  of  Agriculture  and 
Commerce,  and  the  Ministry  of  Communications,  and  many  pro- 
vincial governments  have  developed  some  activities  in  the  form  of 
adult  education.  These  vary  greatly  in  extent  and  continuity  in 
the  different  provinces,  Shansi  at  present  leading  the  way  alike 
in  organisation,  in  the  comprehensiveness  of  its  programme  and  in 
the  production  and  distribution  of  special  literature.  But  it  is  ad- 
mitted that  the  task  of  organising  primary  and  middle  school 
education  will  be  so  heavy  that  the  government  will  leave  adult 
education  mainly  to  voluntary  effort. 

b.  There  is  a  considerable  number  of  voluntary  agencies 
outside  the  Christian  system  known  as  "popular  educational  asso- 
ciations," of  which  one  at  least,  the  Peking  Association,  ha.s  already 
performed  valuable  work  in  preparing  and  arranging  suitable 
literature. 

c.  It  is  difficult  to  make  any  general  statements  regard- 
ing the  part  which  the  Christian  system  of  education  has  so  far 
played  in  the  work.  Reference  is  made  elsewhere  to  the  numerous 
"People's  Schools"  organised  by  students  of  Christian  middle 
schools  and  colleges.  There  are  many  instances  of  striking  indi- 
vidual activity,  and  a  special  tribute  is  due  to  the  work  of  Mr.  T.  I. 
Tong  of  the  Shanghai  College  in  preparing  suitable  text-books  for 
adult  illiterates  on  the  600  character  system.     The  increasing  ac- 


250  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

tivity  of  the  Young  Men's  Christian  Association  in  this  field  is 
very  marked.  But  it  may  fairly  be  said  of  the  Christian  system 
as  a  whole  that  its  efforts  in  this  direction  have  so  far  been  spas- 
modic and  uncoordinated  and  that  it  has  not  yet  developed  any 
systematic  policy  or  programme  of  adult  education.  There  is, 
however,  a  growing  feeling  that  this  will  have  to  come  quickly  if 
the  Christian  forces  are  to  make  their  influence  widely  felt  in 
moulding  public  opinion,  and  we  are  thus  brought  to  the  consid- 
eration of  what  should  be  the  special  objectives  of  adult  education 
under  Christian  auspices  in  China  in  the  light  of  the  factors  al- 
ready discussed. 

413.  Special  objectives. — The  main  purpose  must  undoubt- 
edly be  the  development  of  public  opinion  and  of  citizenship  on 
Christian  lines,  this  object  involving  also  the  ideals  indicated  in 
the  introductory  paragraph.  Along  what  lines  can  this  purpose 
best  be  achieved? 

a.  A  strong  and  sustained  campaign  against  illiteracy  is 
one  of  the  most  important  aims  and  is  an  indispensable  condition 
of  the  success  of  the  whole  movement.  Its  organization  must  not 
only  provide  for  teaching  illiterates  to  read  and  write  but  also 
supply  suitably  graded  literature  adapted  to  different  groups, 
farmers,  soldiers,  artisans,  in  all  essential  aspects  of  citizenship. 
To  achieve  this  purpose  the  task  of  the  immediate  future  is  to 
link  up  the  scattered  efforts  now  being  made.  There  is  room 
for  a  large  number  of  experiments,  but  a  central  organisation  is 
necessary  in  order : 

(i)  To  determine  the  larger  features  of  the  policy  to 
be  followed  with  respect  to  such  essential  matters  as  the  employ- 
ment of  "foundation  characters,"  ^  and  the  use  of  the  phonetic 
script,  on  which  there  ought  to  be  substantial  agreement. 

(2)  To  ensure  concentration  of  effort  in  concerted  cam- 
paigns. For  example,  well-organised  winter  campaigns  in  par- 
ticular country  districts  might  achieve  great  results  in  a  few 
weeks. 

(3)  To  keep  scattered  groups  of  voluntary  workers  in 

^  "Foundation    characters"    are    those    that    are    most    essential    for    everyday    use. 


ADULT  EDUCATION  251 

touch  with  each  other,   with  the   results   of   well-tested   experi- 
ments, and  with  the  latest  literature. 

(4)  To  arrange  periodical  conferences,  to  collect  and 
tabulate  statistics,  to  work  out  the  most  effective  form  of  co- 
operation with  governmental  and  other  agencies  and  to  keep  the 
movement  in  China  in  touch  with  similar  movements  in  other 
countries. 

b.  Complementary  to  this  first  objective  and  so  closely 
connected  with  it  that  it  should  come  within  the  same  general 
organisation,  is  the  aim  of  introducing  new  ideas,  awakening 
curiosity,  and  creating  a  desire  for  knowledge  through  a  well- 
organised  system  of  popular  lectures.  It  is  clear  that  this  type 
of  work  may  both  prepare  the  way  for  adult  schools  and  also 
build  upon  the  foundations  which  these  schools  lay.  But  it  calls 
for  a  different  class  of  workers,  especially  trained  in  the  art  of 
popular  lecturing  and  versed  in  modern  methods  of  visual  in- 
struction. 

These  are  probably  the  two  most  important  aspects  of 
adult  education  of  the  more  elementary  kind,  and  it  is  to  be  hoped 
that  it  will  more  and  more  be  linked  up  with  the  ordinary  school 
system.  The  ideal  is  that  every  school  should  regard  itself  and 
be  regarded  by  the  people  as  a  school  of  the  whole  community, 
i.e.,  it  should  consciously  seek  to  function  as  an  educational  centre 
for  the  out-of-school  members  of  the  community,  whether  chil- 
dren or  adults,  and  not  limit  its  services  to  those  who  can  attend 
its  courses  for  full  time  during  the  day. 

c.  But  adult  education  is  concerned  with  much  more 
than  teaching  the  rudiments  of  knowledge.  Its  highest  function 
is  to  build  upon  the  foundations  which  the  schools  lay  and  to 
prove  that  education  is  a  continuous  process  which  ends  only  with 
life  itself.  Continuation  and  extension  work  must  form  an  essen- 
tial part  of  its  programme  in  China  if  the  ideal  of  an  educated 
democracy  is  to  be  realised.  From  that  point  of  view,  indeed, 
intensive  work  among  a  limited  number  of  adults  is  just  as  essen- 
tial as  extensive  work  among  the  masses. 

414.    At  present  the  only  form  of  continuation  work  at  all 


252  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

extensively  developed  in  China  under  Christian  auspices  consists 
of  evening  classes  in  English,  typewriting,  bookkeeping,  and  sim- 
ilar subjects  adapted  to  the  needs  of  clerks  and  young  business 
men,  and  it  is  almost  wholly  vocational  in  character.  There  is, 
of  course,  a  great  demand  for  classes  of  this  kind  in  the  com- 
mercial cities  of  China,  and,  as  conducted  by  the  Young  Men's 
Christian  Association,  it  helps  to  keep  an  important  section  of 
the  community  in  touch  with  Christian  influences.  But  there  is 
a  real  danger  of  its  absorbing  too  large  a  part  of  the  time  and 
energies  of  those  who  can  devote  themselves  to  adult  work.  It 
is  a  form  of  adult  education  which,  it  is  to  be  hoped,  will  be  in- 
creasingly provided  by  public  authorities  or  by  business  organisa- 
tions directly  interested  in  promoting  it. 

415.  In  the  countries  where  adult  education  has  accom- 
plished most,  it  has  come  to  be  applied  almost  exclusively  to  non- 
vocational  as  contrasted  with  vocational  effort  on  the  part  of 
men  and  women  acting  in  common  to  promote  better  citizenship. 
It  can  hardly  be  doubted  that  the  chief  goal  of  the  more  advanced 
type  of  adult  education  under  Christian  auspices  in  China  is  the 
moulding  of  public  opinion  on  the  more  delicate  and  difficult  but 
vital  issues  of  Chinese  citizenship  and  particularly  those  involved 
in  the  improvement  of  social,  industrial  and  political  conditions. 

416.  It  is  here  that  the  Christian  colleges  through  some  form 
of  university  extension  can  make  their  greatest  contribution  to 
the  movement  by  appealing  directly  to  the  educated  as  distinct 
from  the  uneducated  public.  It  is  perhaps  one  of  the  most  hope- 
ful signs  of  our  time  that  the  educated  classes,  or  at  least  an  im- 
portant and  influential  section  of  them,  are  in  nearly  all  countries 
beginning  to  realise  their  own  under-education  and  are  seeking 
for  more  light  in  all  that  appertains  to  a  better  social  order  and 
better  national  relationships.  Such  a  class  is  already  to  be  found 
in  nearly  all  the  strategic  centres  of  China,  both  among  the  Chi- 
nese themselves  and  the  foreign  community.  There  is  at  any 
rate  an  important  minority  among  the  great  employers  of  labour 
and  the  organizers  of  commerce  and  industry  who  are  profoundly 
dissatisfied  with  the  present  order  of  things,  and  who  realise  the 


ADULT  EDUCATION  253 

terrible  menace  to  society  involved  in  a  "laissez  faire"  attitude 
towards  the  social  conditions  fast  developing  in  the  great  cities. 
The  report  of  the  official  commission  appointed  to  enquire  into 
industrial  conditions  at  Hongkong;  the  recent  discussion  in  the 
press  about  the  factory  population  of  Shanghai;  the  interest 
aroused  by  the  propaganda  of  the  League  of  Reconciliation,  are 
all  signs  of  a  new  social  consciousness  to  which  appeal  can  be 
made.  It  will  be  part  of  the  function  of  the  Christian  colleges, 
through  the  departments  which  are  concerned  with  the  social  sci- 
ences, to  give  by  means  of  public  lecture  courses  and  organized 
discussion  classes,  all  the  lead  and  enlightenment  on  these  vital 
social  questions  of  which  they  are  capable.  University  extension 
work  of  this  kind,  especially  if  it  could  utilize  the  results  of  sys- 
tematic investigation  to  be  undertaken,  as  is  advocated  elsewhere, 
by  a  Christian  Institute  of  Economic  Research,  might  exercise  an 
incalculably  important  influence  upon  industrial  policy.  If  it  did 
nothing  else  than  to  ensure  support  and  backing  for  those  em-' 
ployers  and  directors  of  industry  who  have  it  in  their  power  to 
initiate  experiments  in  industrial  organization,  it  would  achieve 
a  great  result. 

417.  It  is  not  only  the  employing  and  merchant  classes  that 
will  have  to  be  considered  from  the  standpoint  of  this  higher  type 
of  teaching.  There  are  already  signs  of  a  labor  movement  in 
China,  as  evidenced  by  new  forms  of  associations  among  em- 
ployees, and  indeed  by  the  familiar  phenomenon  of  strikes.  A 
labor  movement  implies  the  emergence  of  labor  leadership, 
although  probably  not  on  quite  the  same  lines  as  in  the  West. 
Nothing  is  more  surely  discredited  by  the  experiences  of  all 
countries  which  have  passed  through  the  various  phases  of  indus- 
trialism than  the  attempt  to  suppress  labor  leadership  or  to  with- 
hold higher  education  from  it.  All  who  believe  in  the  attainment 
of  social  righteousness  through  understanding  rather  than  through 
violence  must  hope  that  the  Christian  colleges  may  play  their  part 
in  developing  an  educated  aristocracy  of  labor  in  China.  The 
University  Tutorial  Class  movement  in  England,  which  has 
brought  the  universities  into  direct  and  fruitful  contact  with  some 


254  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

of  the  finest  minds  in  the  labor  world,  stands  for  a  type  of  adult 
education  deserving  of  most  careful  study  by  all  who  are  inter- 
ested in  the  industrial  future  of  China.  It  is  not,  of  course,  sug- 
gested that  an  organization  of  this  kind  can  be  brought  into 
existence  in  China  for  many  years  to  come,  but  that  as  soon  as 
practicable  cautious  experiments  in  this  direction  should  be  made, 
especially  in  the  new  factory  districts  and  the  great  commercial 
cities.  For  this  purpose  it  is  essential  to  secure  the  active  good- 
will and  cooperation  of  all  great  employers  of  labor  who  be- 
lieve, as  an  increasing  number  do  believe,  that  the  stability  of 
society  ultimately  depends  upon  education. 

418.  The  case  for  a  definite  programme  of  adult  education 
as  undertaken  by  the  Christian  forces  and  for  a  better  coordi- 
nation of  the  eflforts  now  being  made  has  already  been  argued. 
It  seems  essential  that  there  should  come  into  existence  an  ad- 
visory body  representative  of  all  the  chief  agencies  taking  part 
or  likely  to  take  part  in  this  class  of  work,  and  that  this  body 
should  be  intimately  associated  with  the  organization  responsible 
for  school  and  college  education.  The  Commission,  therefore, 
recommends : 

a.  That  adult  education  should  form  one  department  of 
the  China  Christian  Education  Association  with  its  own  council 
and  secretary. 

b.  That  the  council  should  consist  of  representatives  of 
the  following:  (i)  the  Councils  of  the  Departments  of  Elementary 
and  Secondary  Education  and  of  Higher  Education  of  the  China 
Christian  Educational  Association;  (2)  the  missions  and  churches, 
acting  through  the  National  Christian  Council  as  soon  as  this  is 
constituted;  (3)  the  national,  executives  of  the  Young  Men's 
Christian  Association  and  Young  Women's  Christian  Association ; 
(4)  the  China  Christian  Literature  Council. 

c.  That  the  provincial  boards  of  education  act  as  the 
agencies  for  promoting  adult  education  in  their  respective  areas. 


CHAPTER  XII 

THE  EDUCATION  OF  WOMEN 

I.    Introduction 

419.  The  education  of  girls  is  included  with  that  of  boys 
throughout  the  Report  of  the  Commission,  but  is  also  touched  upon 
in  this  separate  chapter  in  order  to  emphasize  certain  phases  of  the 
subject. 

In  this  connection,  the  Commission  wishes  to  acknowl- 
edge the  assistance  received  from  the  report  of  the  Deputation 
from  the  Federation  of  Women's  Boards  of  Foreign  Missions, 
which  visited  China  two  years  ago. 

II.    Early  History 

420.  Schools  for  girls  are  of  comparatively  recent  origin  in 
China,  but  it  would  be  erroneous  to  assume  that  no  women  re- 
ceived any  education  whatever  in  ancient  China.  Many  well-to-do 
homes  conducted  private  schools  for  the  children  of  the  family, 
and  while  these  were  intended  primarily  for  boys,  girls  were 
not  infrequently  permitted  to  attend  them  also.  In  these  schools 
they  were  taught  penmanship,  painting,  poetry,  and  music,  and 
committed  many  of  the  classics  to  memory. 

The  great  mass  of  girls  received  no  training  in  the  read- 
ing of  books  or  writing  of  compositions.  Yet  even  they  were  not 
wholly  without  education  since  they  were  taught  to  spin  and 
weave,  to  prepare  food,  to  care  for  children,  and  to  act  with  pro- 
priety in  all  their  relationships.  The  fact  that,  even  in  the  pioneer 
period,  there  were  a  few  Chinese  women  teachers  in  the  mission 

255 


256  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

schools,  indicates  that  there  were  at  least  a  few  women  who  had 
an  education  of  some  sort. 


III.    The  Beginnings  of  Modern  Education  of  Women 

421.  Mission  schools. — The  opportunities  for  education  in 
the  sense  in  which  education  is  imparted  by  means  of  schools 
were  first  brought  to  the  women  of  China  by  Christian  mission- 
aries. It  is  with  their  work,  therefore,  that  the  story  of  the  new 
era  in  woman's  education  must  begin, 

a.  The  first  school  for  Chinese  girls  was  opened  in 
Singapore  in  1825,  by  Miss  Grant,  an  English  woman.  Nine 
years  later  a  group  of  English  women  organized  "The  Society 
for  Promoting  Female  Education  in  the  East,"  and  in  1837,  Miss 
Aldersey,  a  missionary  of  this  society,  established  another  school 
for  Chinese  girls  on  the  island  of  Java.  In  1842,  when  the  five 
treaty  ports  were  opened  to  foreigners.  Miss  Aldersey  went  to 
Ningpo,  and  there, J|i_l844,  established  the  first  school  for  girls 
in  China.  Between  1847  and  i860,  eleven  other  mission  schools 
for  girls  were  opened  in  the  five  treaty  ports. 

In  1858  the  whole  of  China  was  opened  by  treaty  to 
mission  work,  and  while  public  opinion  delayed  the  opening  of 
schools  for  girls  in  North  China  for  six  years,  the  American 
Board  opened  two  girls'  schools  in  1864,  one  in  Peking  and  one 
in  Tientsin,  The  pioneer  girls'  school  of  Central  China  was 
opened  in  1873. 

b.  It  is  almost  impossible  to  have  any  real  conception 
to-day  of  the  obstacles  and  difficulties  which  the  pioneers  in  the 
establishment  of  schools  for  girls  in  China  had  to  meet.  Not 
only  was  it  necessary  to  combat  custom,  but  also  to  overcome 
the  innumerable  fears,  suspicions,  and  prejudices  inspired  by  the 
fact  that  the  teachers  were  foreigners.  It  was  possible,  at  first, 
to  secure  only  little  slave  girls,  homeless  foundlings,  or  the  chil- 
dren of  the  poorest  of  the  poor,  who  were  induced,  by  promises 
of  food  and  clothing,  to  risk  the  perils  of  entrusting  the  children 
to  the  foreigners.     Yet  through  these  pioneer  school  girls,  the 


THE  EDUCATION  OF  WOMEN  257 

believers  in  Chinese  womanhood  gave  to  China  convincing  proof 
that  her  daughters  were  as  capable  and  worthy  of  education  as 
her  sons. 

c.  The  course  of  study  in  these  schools  was  very  like 
that  given  in  schools  in  the  West  at  that  time.  The  Presbyterian 
school  in  Ningpo,  reported,  in  1849,  the  following  schedule: 
"The  girls  are  taught  to  read  their  own  language.  They  do  not 
learn  the  Chinese  classics  but  study  books  containing  Christian 
instruction,  and  some  elementary  books  in  science.  They  are 
taught  Scripture  history  orally  by  means  of  questions  and  an- 
swers. Arithmetic  and  geography  form  a  part  of  their  studies 
and  two  of  the  girls  are  learning  English.  They  are  trained  in 
habits  of  industry  and  taught  in  such  kinds  of  work  as  will  fit 
them  for  usefulness  in  the  stations  they  may  occupy  in  future 
life."  The  school  in  Foochow  included  in  its  course  of  study,  in 
1864,  Christian  morals  and  doctrine,  geography,  history,  astron- 
omy, mathematics,  daily  reading  of  the  Bible,  also  needlework 
and  domestic  economy. 

422.  Private  schools. — The  first  school  for  girls  established, 
financed  and  conducted  by  Chinese  people,  was  opened  in  Shanghai 
in  1897.  Among  the  subjects  taught  were  English,  reading,  spell- 
ing, Chinese,  arithmetic,  geography,  drawing  and  foreign  sewing. 
In  1899,  less  than  two  years  after  its  establishment,  an  edict  of 
the  Empress  Dowager  closed  this  school,  but  two  years  later, 
the  Boxer  Uprising  over,  the  Empress  Dowager  reversed  her 
policy,  and  issued  an  edict  permitting  the  opening  of  girls'  schools. 
Each  of  the  years  1901,  1902,  1903  and  1904,  witnessed  the  open- 
ing of  a  girls'  school  in  Shanghai,  the  first  two  of  which  are  still 
among  the  largest  and  most  prosperous  girls'  schools  in  the  city. 
Four  more  were  established  in  1905,  and  three  in  1906,  At  the 
order  of  the  Empress  a  large  Lama  convent  in  Peking  was  trans- 
formed into  a  school  for  girls  and  a  number  of  Manchu  princesses 
in  the  North  were  quick  to  follow  her  example.  In  other  parts  of 
China  also,  privately  established  and  financed  girls'  schools  were 
started,  and  such  schools  are  now  found  in  practically  every  city 


258  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

of  size.     They  are  of  several  types  and  of  varying  degrees  of 
efiiciency. 

423.  Government  schools. — Although  the  edict  of  the  Em- 
press Dowager,  in  1901,  permitted  the  establishment  of  schools 
for  girls  on  the  part  of  the  Chinese,  it  was  not  until  1907  that 
such  schools  were  definitely  provided  for  by  the  government.  At 
that  time  a  system  of  education  was  outlined,  similar  to  that 
planned  for  boys  in  1903. 

Miss  Ida  Lewis,  in  "The  Education  of  Girls  in  China," 
gives  the  following  summary  of  the  decrees  of  the  new  government 
concerning  education  for  women : 

"When  the  educational  laws  for  the  Republic  were 
drawn  up  in  1912,  the  Minister  of  Education  issued  this  most 
important  order :  'The  firmness  of  the  foundation  upon  which  the 
Republic  of  China  has  been  founded  depends  on  education.  We 
must,  hereafter,  make  our  best  effort  to  develop  and  encourage 
woman's  education  as  well  as  that  for  men.  We  must  emphasize 
and  provide  for  social  as  well  as  school  education.' 

"To  make  the  education  of  girls  more  possible  the  Board 
of  Education  decreed  on  May  11,  1912,  that  'In  the  lower  ele- 
mentary grades  boys  and  girls  may  attend  the  same  school.  The 
boys  and  girls  in  higher  primary  schools,  however,  are  required 
to  form  separate  classes.' 

"Soon  followed  the  order  that  definitely  established  the 
ideal  of  universal  education  and  the  aim  of  the  minimum  length 
for  school  life.  The  law  makes  no  distinction  between  girls  and 
boys." 

That  the  government's  ideals  have  not  yet  become  reali- 
ties does  not  alter  the  significant  fact  that  the  Republic  of  China 
had  girls  as  well  as  boys  in  mind  when  it  outlined  its  educational 
plans  and  policies. 

IV.    Present  Situation:  Proportionate  Provision  for  Education  of 

Boys  and  Girls 

424.  Comparison  of  Christian  and  government  schools. — 
In  the  Christian  system  of  education,  girls'  schools  have  a  much 


THE  EDUCATION  OF  WOMEN  259 

larger  place  than  in  the  government  system.  The  percentage  of 
girls  in  Christian  elementary  schools  is  eight  times  as  large  as  in 
government  elementary  schools;  in  secondary  schools  it  is  nine 
times,  and  in  higher  education,  ten  times  as  large  as  in  the  gov- 
ernment system. 

425.  Proportion  of  boys  and  girls  in  Christian  schools. — 
The  number  of  boys  in  Christian  elementary  schools  is  more 
than  double  the  number  of  girls ;  in  secondary  schools  nearly  five 
times  as  many,  and  ten  to  one  in  higher  education.  The  latest 
figures  give  a  total  enrollment  in  secondary  schools  of  2.569  girls, 
12,644  boys.  The  highest  percentage  of  girls  in  secondary  schools 
is  found  in  the  province  of  Kiangsi.  Kiangsu,  which  leads  in  the 
total  number  of  students,  drops  to  fourth  place  in  the  proportion 
of  girl  students,  and  Kwantung  to  tenth  place. 

426.  Importance  of  the  middle  school  in  the  education  of 
girls. — The  middle  schools  are  the  key  to  the  problem.  If  they 
are  weak  the  elementary  schools  will  lack  teachers  and  the  col- 
leges will  remain  small  and  ineffective.  The  colleges  have  already 
stimulated  a  growth  in  numbers  in  the  middle  schools.  The  en- 
rollment in  a  group  of  schools  which  sends  students  to  college 
has  more  than  doubled  in  five  years  and  a  tendency  is  shown  to 
hold  girls  longer  in  school.  Along  with  the  increased  interest 
in  the  education  of  girls,  parents  may  be  discovering  that  it  pays 
to  educate  their  daughters,  both  because  they  become  a  source  of 
income  to  the  family  and  because  they  make  better  marriages. 

427.  Increase  in  self  support. — The  number  of  students  pay- 
ing full  fees  is  steadily  increasing,  and  the  fees  themselves  are 
bearing  a  larger  share  of  the  costs.  The  fees  are  low  in  many 
schools,  probably  lower  than  is  wise  or  necessary,  if  adequate  funds 
for  aiding  worthy  students  are  included  in  the  budget.  Christian 
schools  face  the  difficulty  of  existing  side  by  side  with  govern- 
ment schools  which  are  free,  and  the  idea  of  paying  for  the  edu- 
cation of  girls  needs  to  be  cultivated. 

428.  Denominational  schools. — In  a  list  of  forty-two  Chris- 
tian middle  schools  from  which  students  have  gone  on  to  college, 
twelve  are  of  one  denomination.     This  church  leads  in  offering 


26o  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

girls  a  chance  and  in  stimulating  in  them  a  desire  to  go  on.  More 
than  one-half  the  total  number  of  middle  school  girls  are  enrolled 
in  schools  of  this  denomination,  meaning  for  that  church  more 
and  better  elementary  schools  and  a  larger  share  in  the  oppor- 
tunities of  higher  training  in  college.  In  one  of  the  union  col- 
leges, forty-five  per  cent  of  the  students  are  of  the  same  denomi- 
nation. If  other  denominations  were  taking  their  full  share  in 
this  most  rewarding  effort,  the  Christian  church  would  be  able 
to-day  to  enter  more  fully  into  the  large  opportunity  in  government 
schools  and  in  social  evangelism  in  the  cities. 

429.  Religious  status  of  students. — The  proportion  of  girls 
coming  from  non-Christian  homes  is  evidence  that*  the  schools  are 
approved  outside  the  Christian  circle.  Their  value  as  an  evan- 
gelizing agency  is  shown  when  the  percentage  from  Christian 
homes  is  compared  with  the  percentage  of  Christian  students. 
The  following  figures  from  one  institution  are  significant:  twenty 
per  cent  of  the  students  are  from  Christian  homes,  ninety-two  per 
cent  are  Christians.  In  one  of  the  colleges  one-third  of  the  stu- 
dents are  from  non-Christian  homes,  but  more  than  nine-tenths 
of  the  girls  are  Christians,  the  result  of  Christian  influence  in  the 
middle  schools. 

430.  Teacher  training  in  the  middle  schools. — The  girls'  mid- 
dle schools  are  making  a  marked  contribution  to  the  ranks  of 
teachers.  A  large  majority  of  their  graduates,  as  well  as  many 
who  do  not  complete  the  course,  teach.  For  some  years  the  schools 
have  given  teacher  training  to  their  students  and  a  system  of  pupil 
teachers  for  lower  classes  has  offered  practice  under  supervision. 
When  there  has  been  failure  in  this  effort  to  meet  vocational  de- 
mands it  has  been  because  of  inadequate  staff  and  lack  of  training, 
not  through  unwillingness  or  ignorance  of  the  need. 

431.  Vocational  schools. — A  few  normal  schools,  including 
kindergarten  training  schools,  and  numerous  Bible  training  schools 
of  various  grades,  are  to  be  found  in  all  sections  of  China.  The 
normal  schools  are  chiefly  of  middle  school  grade  or  lower,  as  are 
most  of  the  Bible  training  schools.  The  Physical  Training  School 
of  Shanghai,  under  the  Young  Women's  Christian  Association, 


THE  EDUCATION  OF  WOMEN  261 

is  now  requiring  middle  school  graduation  and  enters  the  ranks 
of  institutions  of  college  grade. 

432.  Colleges  for  zvomeu. — The  college  stage  was  reached  in 
1908  when  the  Union  College  for  Women  in  Peking  (now 
Yenching  College)  was  started.  In  Nanking,  about  the  same 
time,  the  Methodist  girls'  school  carried  work  above  the  middle 
school  as  the  Nanking  Woman's  College,  and  pioneered  in  co- 
education in  some  classes  with  the  boys  of  Nanking  University. 
This  was  discontinued  when  plans  for  a  union  college  were  formed. 
Ginling  College  opened  in  191 5,  and  has  graduated  three  classes, 
conferring  the  A.  B.  degree  under  the  Regents  of  the  University 
of  the  State  of  New  York.  In  Foochow,  South  China  College 
(Hwa  Nang)  began  work  above  the  middle  school  in  1914,  and 
has  graduated  one  class. 

433.  Coeducation. — Canton  Christian  College  is  now  coedu- 
cational, graduating  one  woman  in  1921.  Shanghai  Baptist  Col- 
lege admitted  women  in  1920,  and  Yale-in-China  (in  Changsha) 
admitted  two  students  to  the  pre-medical  course  in  1921.  In 
Canton  coeducation  was  an  evolution.  In  Shanghai  and  Changsha 
it  followed  the  adoption  of  coeducation  in  government  schools 
in  response  to  a  small  local  demand.  Yenching,  in  1920,  be- 
came affiliated  with  Peking  University.  Present  enrollments  are 
as  follows :  Yenching,  including  two  years  of  pre-college  work, 
118;  Ginling,  70;  Hwa  Nang,  30;  Canton,  23;  Shanghai,  9; 
Yale,  2. 

434.  Government  schools  for  girls. — In  the  government  sys- 
tem only  nine  middle  schools  for  girls,  with  622  students,  were 
reported  in  1919.  The  emphasis  has  been  on  the  normal  school, 
and  fifty-four  of  these  schools  are  reported  with  5,203  students. 
The  government  is  favoring  the  use  of  women  teachers  in  all 
elementary  schools  and  coeducation  in  elementary  and  higher 
education,  not  in  secondary  schools.  In  1919  the  higher  normal 
school  for  girls  in  Peking  advanced  to  college  grade  and  the  Na- 
tional University  admitted  women.  In  1920  the  Government 
Teachers'  College  in  Nanking,  now  Southeastern  University,  and 
in  1 92 1,  Nan  Kai  College  in  Tientsin,  admitted  women.     Present 


262  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

enrollments  are  as  follows:  National  University  of  Peking,  20; 
Southeastern  University,  15;  Nan  Kai,  16. 

V.    Problems  in  Girls'  Schools 

435.  The  problem  of  teachers. — In  the  case  of  women  teach- 
ers marriage  seriously  interferes  with  the  permanency  of  the  staff. 
Another  factor  affecting  the  work  is  the  time  required  for  "extra- 
curriculum"  demands  made  upon  the  woman  teacher,  all  of  which 
are  legitimate,  hut  overtax  strength  and  make  inroads  upon  time 
needed  for  relaxation  and  study.  Many  principals  find  their  days 
so  filled  with  petty  cares  and  duties  that  there  is  no  leisure  for 
constructive  planning,  supervising  and  inspiring  younger  teachers, 
and  the  quiet  living  essential  to  the  best  work  for  others.  It 
should  be  added,  however,  that  members  of  the  Commission  visit- 
ing the  girls'  middle  schools  were  impressed  by  the  wisdom  of 
some  principals  in  delegating  minor  duties  to  others  and  reserving 
a  margin  of  time  for  the  larger  demands. 

There  is  need  of  qualified  Chinese  women  teachers  in 
the  middle  schools.  The  demand  for  college  trained  Chinese 
women  is  largely  in  excess  of  the  supply,  and  until  more  Chinese 
women  are  trained  it  will  be  necessary  to  depend  upon  foreign 
teachers.  The  departments  in  which  this  need  of  Chinese  teach- 
ers is  especially  felt  are  science,  including  domestic  science,  the 
Chinese  language  and  art,  and  physical  education.  There  is  also 
a  demand  for  qualified  Chinese  women  as  matrons  of  the  schools 
for  girls. 

Securing  the  right  type  of  Chinese  men  as  teachers  in 
a  girls'  school  presents  a  problem.  The  salaries  offered  are  too 
small  to  be  an  attraction;  the  position  in  a  girls'  school  generally 
appeals  less  strongly  to  a  man  than  a  similar  post  in  a  school  for 
boys ;  in  order  to  satisfy  the  proprieties  the  man  must  not  be  too 
young,  and  enthusiasm,  energy,  and  up-to-date  training  are  gen- 
erally not  found  in  the  older  men.  The  latter  are  also  more 
often  lacking  in  power  of  discipline  and  ordinarily  do  not  require 
as  high  a  standard  of  work  from  the  girl  student  as  from  the  boy. 

436.  The  problem  of  adequate  equipment  and  living  condi- 


THE  EDUCATION  OF  WOMEN  263 

tioiis. — The  first  essential  to  a  successful  school  is  a  strong  staff, 
but  a  close  second  is  adequate  equipment.  There  is  also  need  of 
more  generous  provision  of  homes  and  convenient  and  comfortable 
living  conditions  for  unmarried  women  teachers,  both  Chinese  and 
foreign.  This  need  is  especially  to  be  noted  in  the  case  of  country 
day  schools. 

437.  TJic  problem  of  conservatism. — The  education  of  girls 
has  been  hindered  in  the  past  by  conservatism,  both  of  Chinese  and 
foreigners.  The  girls'  schools  have  not  shared  fully  in  general 
funds,  and  as  a  result,  have  had  their  greatest  development  under 
the  auspices  of  Women's  Boards.  Chinese  conservatism  is  still 
to  be  reckoned  with  away  from  the  coast  cities.  The  Christian 
church  ought  to  lead  in  generous  readiness  to  pay  for  the  educa- 
tion of  girls  as  well  as  bo3's.  The  fact  that  more  than  half  of  the 
girls  in  Christian  middle  schools  are  from  non-Christian  homes 
while  the  total  number  is  far  less  than  the  Christian  homes  alone 
should  furnish,  indicates  that  there  is  still  need  of  converting 
Chinese  Christians  to  a  recognition  of  the  fact  that  the  education 
of  girls  is  fundamental  in  the  building  up  of  the  Christian  church 
and  the  Christian  community. 

438.  One  method  of  solving  the  above  problems. — The  prob- 
lems of  inadequate  staffing,  insufficient  equipment  and  limited  re- 
sources, could  be  solved  in  some  localities  by  union  of  the  girls' 
middle  schools  or  by  close  coordination,  one  school  emphasizing 
one  line  of  work,  and  another  some  other  line.  It  seems  like  un- 
scientific management  to  maintain  two  or  three  schools  in  a  com- 
munity, no  one  of  them  adequately  staffed,  sufficiently  equipped, 
or  with  a  large  number  of  pupils.  The  Commission  recommends 
careful  study  of  such  schools,  testing  them  by  the  requirements  of 
an  up-to-date  standard  secondary  school  for  girls,  and  when  they 
fail  to  meet  such  requirements,  the  consideration  of  union  or  co- 
ordination with  schools  of  other  denominations. 

VI.    The  Part  Which  Women  Will  Play  in  the  New  China 

439.  The  part  which  women  will  play  in  the  new  China 
emphasizes  the  need  of  making  adequate  provision  for  the  educa- 


264  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

tion  of  girls.  The  demand  will  be  in  many  directions,  but  in  none 
more  insistent  than  in  the  schools.  The  call  for  women  teachers 
in  private  and  government,  as  well  as  in  mission  schools,  both 
elementary  and  secondary,  is  far  in  excess  of  the  supply.  There 
is  also  a  demand  for  highly  trained  Chinese  women  on  the  staffs 
of  the  Christian  women's  colleges,  of  government  schools,  such 
as  the  Higher  Normal  School  for  Women  in  Peking,  and  as  deans 
of  women  in  coeducational  institutions. 

The  opportunity  for  well-trained  teachers  of  physical 
education  should  not  be  overlooked.  In  all  grades  of  government, 
private,  and  mission  schools,  the  importance  of  physical  education 
is  being  recognized  and  there  is  a  demand  for  Chinese  women, 
with  such  training  as  that  given  by  the  Young  Women's  Christian 
Association  school  in  Shanghai.  This  training  frequently  offers 
the  only  opportunity  for  Christian  influence  in  government  schools. 

440.  The  development  of  the  Chinese  home  involves  ques- 
tions of  hygiene,  sanitation,  food  values,  child  study,  clothing, 
architecture,  in  short,  home  economics  in  its  broadest  interpretation. 
It  calls  for  the  training  of  teachers  and  leaders,  that  the  individual 
home-maker  may  be  reached ;  of  dietitians,  matrons  for  schools 
and  other  institutions,  women  who  must  be  not  foreigners  but 
Chinese,  who  understand  the  conditions  and  traditions,  the  cus- 
toms and  prejudices  of  their  own  country,  and  to  this  under- 
standing, add  the  training  of  the  scientist.  The  training  in  domes- 
tic science  should  also  include  the  home-makers,  not  professional 
women  alone,  but  the  great  majority  who  if  rightly  trained  can 
make  the  Chinese  home  a  source  of  real  strength  to  the  com- 
munity and  the  nation. 

441.  The  first  work  entrusted  to  Chinese  women  by  the  mis- 
sionaries was  religious.  They  were  the  Bible  women,  the  evan- 
gelists among  the  women  of  China.  There  is  still  opportunity 
for  the  Bible  woman,  but  in  addition  there  is  need  of  deaconesses, 
Bible  teachers,  pastor's  assistants,  leaders  in  religious  education, 
evangelists,  Christian  Association  secretaries.  These  posts  re- 
quire education ;  the  old  time  partial  preparation  is  not  adequate  for 
the  wider  field. 


THE  EDUCATION  OF  WOMEN  265 

442.  The  opportunity  for  women  in  social  service  is  not  likely 
to  be  less  in  China  than  in  western  countries.  The  changing  in- 
dustrial conditions,  the  rise  of  the  factory,  the  employment  of 
women  and  children,  the  substitution  of  western  types  of  manu- 
facture for  the  home  crafts,  with  all  the  social  problems  involved, 
will  lead  to  new  occupations  for  Chinese  women,  such  as  personnel 
managers,  forewomen  or  advisers.  Secretaries  for  the  Young 
Women's  Christian  Association  and  the  Red  Cross,  and  playground 
supervisors,  are  already  needed ;  there  will  be  many  other  positions 
demanding  trained  women,  as  a  social  conscience  is  developed 
among  the  Chinese  people. 

There  should  also  be  investigators  of  social  conditions, 
women  engaged  in  research,  initiating  and  carrying  forward  a  bet- 
ter understanding  of  social  conditions,  the  reforms  needed,  and 
the  way  to  accomplish  them.  The  minimum  wage,  child  labor, 
safety  devices,  protection  of  women  workers,  the  working  day, 
home  work,  insurance  against  accident,  sickness,  unemployment 
and  old  age,  cooperative  industry — these  are  a  few  of  the  many 
industrial  and  social  problems  which  China  must  solve  and  in 
the  solving  will  need  the  trained  woman  as  well  as  the  trained  man. 

443.  Among  China's  outstanding  women  are  physicians, 
heads  of  hospitals,  exerting  a  wide  influence,  but  too  few  in  num- 
ber. Doctors  and  trained  nurses  are  in  demand  for  hospitals, 
dispensaries,  community  service,  schools,  and  for  general  prac- 
tice. A  new  field  for  qualified  women  is  in  the  line  of  scientific 
research,  e.g.,  biological  and  chemical  investigation,  and  as  tech- 
nicians in  medicine. 

444.  The  unusual  opportunity  for  Chinese  zvonien. — The 
fact  that  China  is  in  the  remaking  gives  to  her  women  a  special 
opportunity.  Organized  efiforts  to  develop  a  social  conscience,  if 
wisely  directed,  will  be  of  incalculable  influence  in  shaping  the 
future  of  the  community  and  of  the  nation.  Already  there  are 
organizations  of  Chinese  women  working  along  social  lines.  Such 
organizations  will  increase  in  number  and  will  need  trained  lead- 
ership in  order  to  make  their  best  contribution  to  Chinese  life. 
They  also  need  the  non-professional  women,  the  voluntary  service 


266  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

of  those  who  are  alive  to  social  problems  and  ready  to  help  in 
their  solving. 


VII.    Recommendations  Concerning  Vocational  Education 

445.  Because  of  the  present  trend  in  the  world  and,  in  par- 
ticular in  China,  the  area  of  vocational  and  professional  work 
shared  by  men  and  women  is  much  larger  than  formerly,  and 
larger  than  that  which  belongs  to  either  men  or  women  alone. 
It  is  important,  therefore,  that  in  making  plans  for  training 
young  people  both  men  and  women  be  considered.  Too  often  in 
western  countries  an  educational  system  has  been  planned  entirely 
with  men  in  mind,  and,  if  it  became  evident  that  women  also 
should  be  given  opportunity  to  fit  themselves  for  life  service,  they 
have  been  permitted  to  attach  themselves  to  the  system  planned  for 
men,  without  having  special  provision  made  for  them,  and  with- 
out adaptation  of  the  system  to  their  special  needs.  This  mis- 
take ought  not  to  be  repeated  in  China.  Rather,  the  value  of  the 
unique  contribution  of  women  to  the  whole  task  to  be  accom- 
plished should  be  fully  recognized,  and,  with  a  few  obvious  ex- 
ceptions, definite  and  adequate  provision  should  be  made  for  them 
in  all  plans  for  vocational  and  professional  training. 

446.  Educational  work. 

a.  Many  of  the  city  primary  schools  are  now  taught  by 
Chinese  women,  and  there  is  every  prospect  that  the  demand  for 
women  teachers  will  increase.  As  conditions  of  village  life  im- 
prove and  prejudices  diminish,  we  may  anticipate  more  women 
teachers  in  the  villages,  enlarging  the  demand.  Although  most 
women  will  probably  teach  but  a  few  years  at  most  before  mar- 
riage, there  is  an  increasing  number  who  teach  after  marriage, 
making  a  somewhat  more  permanent  profession.  To  provide 
women  to  teach  in  the  elementary  schools,  the  Commission  recom- 
mends union  normal  schools  for  girls,  normal  courses  in  middle 
schools,  and  short-course  normal  schools  for  abbreviated  prepara- 
tion.    See  Chapter  on  Education  of  Teachers,  Sections  225 ff. 

b.  Many  Chinese  women  will  also  be  needed  as  teachers 


THE  EDUCATION  OF  WOMEN  267 

in  junior  and  senior  middle  schools,  Christian,  government,  and 
private.  The  Commission  recommends  that  these  women  be 
trained  in  junior  and  senior  colleges  of  education. 

c.  Supervisors  and  members  of  teacher-training  faculties 
will  be  in  demand,  and  many  of  these  posts  will  probably  be 
occupied  by  women.  There  are  many  school  administrative  posi- 
tions, also,  that  women  fill  best.  The  Commission  recommends  that 
the  higher  courses  in  school  administration  be  open  to  men  and 
women  alike. 

d.  The  kindergarten  field,  as  in  the  past,  is  solely  in 
the  charge  of  women,  and  present  opportunities  for  training  should 
be  expanded. 

447.  Literature. — The  Commission  recommends  that  the  col- 
lege or  university  specializing  in  the  training  of  writers  plan  from 
the  outset  to  train  women  as  well  as  men,  since  there  is  immediate 
need  of  Chinese  women  who  can  write  for  Chinese  women  and 
children.  It  also  recommends  that  middle  schools  and  colleges 
especially  encourage  ability  to  write  in  modern  Chinese. 

448.  Medicine. — Inasmuch  as  the  expense  of  equipping  and 
maintaining  medical  schools  is  so  large,  and  the  difficulties  of 
staffing  them  so  great,  the  Commission  recommends  that  the 
schools  established  for  men  also  admit  women  on  equal  terms, 
with  special  provision  for  living  conditions  and  social  life.  See 
Chapter  on  Medical  Education,  Sections  334-339.  It  is  recom- 
mended also  that  adequate  provision  be  made  for  the,  training  of 
women  nurses  and  midwives. 

449.  Religious  work. — The  Commission  recommends  that 
every  type  of  religious  education  offered  to  men  should  be  open 
to  women,  since  the  range  and  variety  of  work  for  which  they  are 
needed  is  as  great  as  in  the  case  of  men. 

450.  Social  service. — All  girls'  schools  should  lay  the  founda- 
tion for  social  service  by  courses  which  not  only  hold  up  high 
ideals  of  citizenship  and  service,  but  are  also  definite  and  practical 
in  the  teaching  concerning  needs  and  the  ways  of  meeting  them. 
Service  in  the  community  should  also  be  a  part  of  every  girl's 
school  life.    The  Commission  recommends  that,  in  addition,  women 


268  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

wishing  to  become  expert  social  workers  be  given  opportunity  for 
such  training  in  the  college  or  university  specializing  in  that  train- 
ing. 

451.  Business. — Although  there  will  probably  not  be  a  large 
number  of  Chinese  women  in  the  business  world  for  years  to  come, 
the  fact  that  a  few  are  already  successfully  holding  responsible 
positions,  indicates  that  at  least  a  small  number  will  wish  to  receive 
special  training.  Believing  that  it  is  important  that  the  women 
who  are  the  pioneers  in  this  field  should  know  something  other  than 
the  old  competitive  business  methods  of  the  Occident,  and  have 
opportunity  to  study  methods  of  conducting  business  in  accordance 
with  Christian  principles  and  ideals,  the  Commission  recommends 
that  the  Christian  college  specializing  in  the  training  of  men  for 
business  life,  should  also  admit  women. 

452.  Home-making. — The  vocations  especially  adapted  to 
women  are  few  in  comparison  with  those  they  share  with  men. 
Chief  of  them  is  that  of  home-making.  All  girls'  schools,  in  a 
general  way,  seek  to  prepare  their  students  to  be  good  wives  and 
mothers  and  to  make  happy  homes.  There  should,  however,  be 
greater  emphasis  than  at  present  on  domestic  science,  and  the 
other  phases  of  household  economics.  The  study  of  food  values, 
the  making  of  diets,  the  care  of  children,  treatment  of  illnesses, 
are  even  more  important  in  Chinese  schools  than  in  those  of 
western  countries,  where  there  is  much  more  general  intelligence 
along  these  lines.  The  model  home,  in  which  girls  live  for  a  period 
of  weeks  assuming  full  charge  of  everything  in  connection  with 
it,  is  a  valuable  adjunct  of  such  courses.  The  Commission  there- 
fore recommends  that  all  girls'  schools  offer  instruction  along  these 
fundamental  lines,  and  that  some  specialize  in  them. 

453.  The  Young  Women's  Christian  Association.  —  The 
urgent  and  increasing  need  of  Chinese  women  as  secretaries  of  the 
Young  Women's  Christian  Association  makes  imperative  the  pro- 
vision of  training  for  the  preparation  of  young  Chinese  women 
for  this  work. 


THE  EDUCATION  OF  WOMEN  269 

VIII.    Education  of  Adult  Women 

454.  Provision  for  the  education  of  adult  women  is  important 
in  a  country  where  many  women  have  had  Httle  or  no  education 
before  marriage,  but  where  enthusiasm  for  the  education  of 
women  is  growing,  and  where  the  part  which  women  are  expected 
to  play  is  increasing.  Many  a  man  wishes  his  uneducated  wife  to 
receive  education,  and  many  an  uneducated  woman  cherishes  ambi- 
tions to  learn.  It  is  generally  not  practicable  for  adult  women  to 
enter  the  girls'  schools,  and  other  provision  must  be  made  for  them. 

.455.    Types  of  education. 

a.  Schools. — Schools  planned,  not  for  girls,  but  for 
grown  women,  have  proved  useful.  Some  of  these  are  boarding 
schools,  the  women  giving  their  entire  time  to  school  work.  Others 
are  day  schools,  but  claim  most  of  the  time  of  the  women  attending 
them.  Such  schools  meet  a  real  need  and  the  Commission  recom- 
mends that  they  be  continued  and  developed. 

b.  Clubs  and  classes. — There  are  many  women  whose 
home  responsibilities  make  attendance  at  school  impossible  and 
provision  should  be  made  for  them.  Schools,  churches,  and  the 
Young  Women's  Christian  Association  are  natural  agencies  for 
bringing  women  together  in  classes  to  study  along  various  lines.  It 
has  been  found  possible  to  give  considerable  education  to  mothers 
in  connection  with  schools  for  young  children,  some  kindergartens 
having  succeeded  in  enrolling  the  mothers  in  daily  afternoon 
classes.  Mothers'  clubs  and  classes,  held  in  connection  with 
churches,  have  reached  some  women.  The  institutional  churches 
are  giving  special  attention  to  classes  for  adults  and  some  of  them 
offer  courses  in  a  variety  of  subjects.  The  Young  Women's  Chris- 
tian Association  is  still  young  in  China  and  fully  organized  educa- 
tional departments  are  so  far  established  in  few  cities.  This  work 
is,  however,  developing  rapidly  and  the  Commission  believes  that 
the  Association  in  the  centres  where  it  is  established  should  take  a 
large  share  in  the  extra-school  education  of  women.     See  Sec- 


270  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

tions  413  b  regarding  the  use  of  the  school  for  the  extra- school 
population  of  the  community. 

c.  Lectures  and  exJiibits. — Another  method  of  extra- 
school  education  for  adult  women  is  the  impartation  of  knowledge 
through  lectures.  What  has  been  done  in  health  campaigns  is  an 
illustration  of  the  possibilities  of  this  method.  The  value  of  the 
exhibit  is  even  greater  in  a  country  where  few  women  can  read 
sufficiently  well  to  profit  by  books  than  in  lands  where  the  ability 
to  read  is  almost  universal.  Such  exhibits,  for  example,  as  are 
found  in  the  Institute  at  Tsinan,  showing  right  and  wrong  methods 
of  sleeping,  taking  care  of  food,  treating  sickness,  caring  for 
children,  teach  vivid  lessons  to  the  thousands  of  Chinese  women 
who  visit  the  Institute,  The  exhibits  showing  the  life  and  work 
of  women  of  other  countries  must  also  do  much  to  stretch  the 
horizons  and  awaken  the  ambitions  of  Chinese  women.  The  Com- 
mission believes  that  this  is  a  valuable  method  of  contributing  to 
adult  education. 

IX.    Higher  Education 

456.  The  three  types  of  colleges. — The  Commission  recog- 
nizes a  place  in  China  for  three  diiTerent  methods  of  educating  men 
and  women:  (i)  in  separate  schools;  (2)  in  the  same  schools 
and  the  same  classes:  (3)  in  coordinate  or  affiliated  schools,  in 
which  equipment  such  as  libraries  and  laboratories  may  be  used  in 
common,  the  same  staff  may  serve  both  schools,  and  certain 
courses  in  which  the  class  is  too  small  to  be  divided  may  be  offered 
to  men  and  women  together,  but  in  which  there  are  separate  classes 
in  many  subjects. 

457.  Coeducation. — The  Commission  believes  that  there  is  no 
objection  to  providing  for  boys  and  girls  together  in  the  early 
years  of  school  life.  Recognizing  the  danger  of  a  rapid  change  in 
the  custom  of  a  country,  it  seems  preferable  under  present  condi- 
tions in  China  to  separate  them  in  the  middle  school  period,  and 
either  in  distinct  institutions,  or  in  coordinated  colleges,  during  the 
first  two  years  of  college  work.    On  the  other  hand,  in  view  of  the 


THE  EDUCATION  OF  WOMEN  271 

great  need  of  college  educated  Chinese  women,  the  limited  money 
and  leadership  available  for  Christian  work  of  college  grade  in 
China,  the  great  distances,  the  diversity  of  language,  and  the  fact 
that  the  existence  of  an  opportunity  for  higher  education  results  in 
the  determination  to  secure  such  education  on  the  part  of  many 
students  who  would  otherwise  be  content  without  it,  the  Com- 
mission recommends  that,  where  there  are  women  who  cannot  easily 
avail  themselves  of  the  opportunities  for  higher  education  ofifered 
in  a  woman's  college,  but  might  avail  themselves  of  such  oppor- 
tunities nearer  home ;  and  where  the  plan  of  coordinated  colleges 
is  impracticable,  colleges  for  men  be  open  to  women  also,  on  the 
coeducational  basis. 

458.  Social  Relations  of  Men  and  Women. — The  Commis- 
sion believes  that  whether  men  and  women  receive  their  college 
education  in  separate,  coordinate,  or  coeducational  colleges,  they 
should  be  given  ample  opportunity  for  natural  social  relationships 
together.  The  college  can  ensure  opportunities  for  such  com- 
panionship under  right  conditions,  and  there  can  be  no  assurance 
that  the  conditions  under  which  it  is  secured  afterward  will  be 
right.  Moreover,  if  the  educated  men  and  women  of  China  are 
to  think  and  work  unitedly  in  facing  their  country's  problems 
and  meeting  its  needs,  the  college  period  is  the  ideal  time  to  pre- 
pare them  for  work  together  in  the  future.  The  students  of  China 
to-day  seem  inclined  to  take  as  a  matter  of  course  that  "all 
things  are  made  new,"  and  there  is  every  reason  to  believe  that 
it  may  be  even  easier  in  China,  than  in  some  other  countries, 
for  women  to  be  full  co-workers  with  men,  provided  they  are 
prepared  for  this  in  the  right  way  during  the  years  of  their 
education. 

X.    Summary  of  Recommendations 

(i)     Financial  support. — A  larger  proportion  of  Board 

appropriations  for  the  education  of  women. 

(2)      The  strengthening  of  middle  schools. — 

(a)     Increases  in  the  teaching  staffs  sufficient  to  free  one 

person  for  administration  and  supervision  and  to  give  teachers 


272  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

time  for  adequate  preparation  of  their  work  and  for  personal  in- 
fluence upon  the  students. 

(b)  Greater  emphasis  upon  vocational  subjects,  such  as 
teacher  training,  domestic  science,  and  also  upon  physical  training. 

(c)  Union  or  close  coordination  of  schools  in  com- 
munities where  there  are  two  or  more  schools  inadequately  staffed 
and  insufficiently  equipped. 

(d)  Limitation  to  a  junior  middle  school  where  there 
are  few  students  in  the  higher  classes,  and  provision  for  those  few 
in  another  school. 

(e)  Closer  cooperation,  on  the  part  of  faculty  and 
students,  with  private  and  government  schools. 

(3)  Higher  education. — 

(a)  The  strengthening  of  existing  colleges  for  women 
rather  than  the  opening  of  new  institutions. 

(b)  In  regions  where  there  are  women  who  cannot 
avail  themselves  of  opportunities  for  higher  education  offered  in 
a  woman's  college  and  where  the  plan  of  coordinated  colleges  is 
impracticable,  the  opening  to  women  of  colleges  for  men  on  the 
coeducational  basis. 

(4)  Vocational  and  Professional  Training. — 

(a)  Adequate  provision  for  women  in  plans  for  voca- 
tional and  professional  training,  in  schools  and  colleges  special- 
izing in  such  subjects  as  literature,  medicine,  religious  education, 
social  service,  business. 

(b)  Emphasis  upon  schools  for  teacher-training. 

(c)  Teaching  of  domestic  science  in  the  schools  in  gen- 
eral, with  specialization  along  this  line  in  some  schools. 

(d)  Provision  for  training  secretaries  for  the  Young 
Women's  Christian  Association. 

(5)  Education  of  adult  women. — Increased  emphasis 
upon  the  education  of  adult  women,  including  schools,  classes, 
clubs,  lectures,  and  exhibits. 


CHAPTER  XIII 
RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION 
I.    Introduction 

459.  Religious  education  as  conceived  in  this  Report  is  not 
identical  with  Christian  education,  but  is  a  particular  phase  of  it. 
It  refers  to  direct  efforts  by  instruction  and  training  to  inform 
the  mind  on  the  subject  of  religion  and  morals,  to  secure  conversion 
and  to  develop  character.  Courses  in  algebra  and  Roman  history 
may  properly  come  within  the  scope  of  Christian  education  and 
rightly  conducted  may  have  a  religious  and  moral  value,  but  they 
would  not  fall  within  the  scope  of  religious  education  as  the  term 
is  here  used,  because  their  relation  to  religion  and  character  build- 
ing is  indirect  rather  than  direct  and  immediate. 

460.  But  the  more  the  subject  is  studied  in  the  laboratory  of 
experience,  the  more  clear  it  becomes  that  religious  attitude  is  not 
determined  and  moral  character  is  not  built  up  solely  or  perhaps 
chiefly  by  oral  instruction  or  the  printed  page.  The  educative 
forces  of  life  are  varied,  and  this  holds  especially  in  the  realm  of 
morals  and  religion.  Not  only  what  the  teacher  teaches,  but  even 
more  his  character  and  personality — "What  you  are  speaks  so 
loud,  I  cannot  hear  what  you  say" — not  only  what  enters  in  through 
ears  and  eyes,  but  even  more  what  goes  out  in  the  varied  expres- 
sions of  life,  speech,  work,  play,  make  and  shape  character. 

This  fact  and  the  recognition  of  the  great  importance  of 
the  subject  have  led  in  recent  years  to  earnest  study  of  it  in  Chris- 
tian lands.  But  although  much  light  has  been  thrown  upon  the 
subject  of  this  study  and  real  progress  has  been  made,  a  fully 
satisfactory  solution  has  not  yet  been  reached. 

273 


274  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

461.  The  subject  has  also  received  earnest  attention  in  Chris- 
tian circles  in  China  for  a  period  of  at  least  fifteen  years,  as  the 
series  of  resolutions  passed  by  various  conferences  since  1907 
clearly  show.  Even  if  the  problem  had  been  solved  for  America  or 
England  and  the  fundamental  principles  had  been  discovered  and 
stated,  conditions  are  so  different  in  China  that  it  would  still  re- 
quire original  study.  This  Commission,  charged  with  responsibility 
for  study  of  the  whole  field  of  Christian  education  from  kinder- 
garten to  university,  has  not  been  able  to  give  that  measure  of  at- 
tention to  the  specific  problems  of  Christian  nurture  in  the  home, 
church  and  school  to  which  its  importance  would  entitle  it.  The 
report  on  this  matter  must,  therefore,  be  rather  a  statement  of 
the  field  covered,  a  strong  affirmation  of  our  sense  of  the  para- 
mount importance  of  the  subject,  and  some  suggestions  respecting 
the  different  divisions  of  it,  than  any  attempt  at  a  thorough-going 
solution  of  the  problems. 

II.    Character  Building 

462.  The  fundamental  purpose  of  Christian  education  is  the 
development  of  Christian  character.  In  almost  every  conference 
held  by  the  Commission  this  was  emphasized  not  only  as  a  matter 
of  great  importance  but  as  the  distinctive  aim  of  the  Christian 
schools.  To  the  degree  in  which  character  is  the  result  of  our 
work,  Christian  education  succeeds;  in  proportion  as  the  schools 
fall  short  of  its  attainment,  the  distinctive  contribution  is  lost.  The 
great  importance  of  men  of  character  in  the  future  life  of  China, 
and  their  peculiar  relation  to  the  Christian  schools,  warrant  sepa- 
rate discussion  not  only  of  the  qualities  of  character  itself,  but  of 
the  educational  means  of  achieving  it. 

463.  Christian  character,  meeting  a  new  situation,  determines 
the  right  attitude  for  a  Christian  to  take  and  then  follows  this 
with  corresponding  conduct.  It  is  not  a  matter  of  conduct  alone. 
A  man  may  act  in  a  Christian  manner  as  a  result  of  habit,  accident, 
or  force  of  circumstances.  This  would  not  necessarily  indicate 
character.  Nor  is  it  a  matter  of  the  determination  of  the  right 
attitude  alone.    A  man  may  have  the  highest  Christian  ideals  and 


RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION  275 

.  principles,  and  act  very  differently.  Only  when  a  man  has  de- 
veloped within  himself  a  keen  sensitivity  to  the  call  of  an  edu- 
cated conscience  and  has  accustomed  himself  to  act  in  accord 
with  the  dictates  of  that  conscience,  can  he  be  trusted  to  respond  to 
new  and  trying  circumstances  in  a  Christian  manner.  This  is 
character.  When  he  has  achieved  this  he  is  to  be  relied  upon. 
People  seek  his  advice.  Responsibilities  are  heaped  upon  him. 
His  fellow  men  feel  safe.  He  is  neither  a  moral  philosopher  remote 
from  life,  nor  an  opportunist  bending  to  the  varying  will  of  popu- 
lar opinion.  In  the  deep  rocks  of  Christian  ethics,  his  character 
is  an  anchor  holding  fast  against  the  tide  of  easy  acquiescence  to 
customary  traditions. 

464.  This  certainty  of  unvarying  right  conduct  in  the  face 
of  difficult  and  unforeseen  conditions,  the  keynote  of  character, 
implies  (i)  a  knowledge  of  right  and  wrong,  (2)  a  habit  of  right 
conduct,  and  (3)  a  combination  of  these,  implying  the  ability  to 
see  right  and  wrong  in  new  situations  and  the  ability  and  habit  of 
ordering  conduct  to  comply  with  this  new  view.  The  first  and 
second  are  themselves  large  educational  tasks,  but  the  third,  so 
necessary  to  true  character,  is  far  more  complex,  being  perplexing 
to  analyze  and  extraordinarily  difficult  to  accomplish.  This  per- 
plexity and  difficulty  of  character  building  has  led  to  confused 
thinking,  yielding  such  a  statement  as  "you  cannot  train  character," 
which  has  done  much  harm.  Educators  are  encouraged  to  throw 
up  their  hands  and  hope  for  the  best.  On  the  contrary,  we  hold 
that  character  is,  in  some  of  its  important  elements  at  least,  a 
specific  and  definite  thing,  that  it  can  be  trained,  that  educators 
can  aim  at  it,  and  that  with  more  precise  methods  better  results 
can  be  hoped  for  and  accomplished. 

465.  The  first  element  of  character,  a  knowledge  of  right  and 
wrong,  presents  a  teaching  problem  that  is  relatively  simple. 
Despite  the  obvious  differences  in  importance  and  size  of  the  field 
it  constitutes  an  educational  problem  similar  to  teaching  the 
rules  of  health,  formal  English  grammar,  or  the  theory  of  plays 
and  games.  In  proportion  as  the  matter  is  correctly  appreciated 
at  first,  has  a  satisfying  result,  and  is  either  vivid  or  frequently 


276  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

repeated ;  the  material  becomes  a  part  of  the  knowledge  of  the 
student.  This  is  the  effect  of  the  system  of  moral  instruction  in 
France,  the  result  of  the  daily  period  in  the  Japanese  schools,  the 
old  Chinese  educational  system  in  part,  and  formal  Bible  study  and 
Sunday  school  work  of  the  old-fashioned  sort.  The  pupils  learn 
what  to  do  and  what  not  to  do.  They  are  able  to  quote  rules  of 
conduct  and  to  discuss  honesty,  purity,  filial  piety,  and  temper- 
ance. It  should  be  noted  that  too  often  the  result  is  merely  a 
knowledge  of  moral  conduct,  not  moral  action;  nor  should  this 
be  unexpected.  It  has  been  proved  that  a  knowledge  of  English 
grammar  and  the  ability  to  speak  or  write  English  are  not  closely 
related.  Physicians  are  sometimes  unhygienic  in  their  manner 
of  life.  No  correspondence  school  offers  a  course  in  swimming. 
So  a  course  in  ethics,  or  moral  instruction,  or  even  Bible  study 
of  a  formal  sort,  can  not  be  expected  of  themselves  to  yield  results 
greater  than  ideas  about  morality.  Moral  conduct  as  a  result 
would  be  accidental  rather  than  necessary. 

466.  In  true  character  building,  ideas  about  morality  are  im- 
portant; and  in  the  imparting  of  ideas,  definite  educational  prin- 
ciples may  be  followed.  There  is  a  wealth  of  experience  to  draw 
upon.  One  thing  should  be  taught  at  a  time,  to  make  a  correct 
first  impression.  Pictures  and  charts,  used  so  widely  in  Japan, 
assist  in  this.  Justice  on  the  part  of  the  teacher,  and  strict  attention 
to  results,  will  make  the  child  pleased  with  the  right  response, 
and  dissatisfied  with  the  wrong.  Vivid  illustration  and  application 
of  principles  taught,  and  visual  instruction,  serve  to  intensify  the 
point;  and  careful  repetition  and  drill  will  fix  it.  There  is  no 
reason  why  any  skillful  teacher  should  not  be  able  to  give  all 
normal  pupils  as  full  and  complete  knowledge  of  right  and  wrong 
as  the  curriculum  of  the  school  contemplates. 

467.  Moral  conduct,  also,  is  relatively  easy  to  teach ;  being 
an  educational  task  similar  to  teaching  golf,  automobile  driving,  or 
conduct  at  the  dinner  table.  Here  the  emphasis  is  not  so  much 
upon  what  a  person  knows  as  on  how  he  acts.  Many  a  person  who 
has  studied  the  etiquette  book  is  uncomfortable  in  polite  society. 
We  learn  to  do  by  doing;  the  emphasis  is  not  on  knowledge  but 


RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION  277 

performance ;  the  result  not  the  ability  to  tell  something  or  pass 
an  examination,  but  to  act  in  a  certain  way.  Furthermore,  as  a  rule 
the  performance  excels  in  proportion  as  it  is  a  matter  of  habit. 
The  golf  player  who  considers  his  elbows,  wrists,  feet  and  eyes  at 
each  drive,  finds  himself  in  the  sand  trap.  In  some  types  of  society, 
forms  of  conduct  were  instilled  in  all  the  youth,  notably  in  primi- 
tive society.  "Theirs  not  to  reason  why,  theirs  not  to  make  reply, 
theirs  but  to  do  or  die."  Conduct  of  certain  types  was  forced  upon 
the  boy  or  girl  by  example,  by  practice,  by  all  the  educational 
forces  of  the  tribe.  Results  were  tested  by  the  severe  trials  of 
the  initiation  ceremonies,  the  emphasis  being  on  conduct  alone,  and 
not  at  all  upon  the  ideas  behind  the  conduct. 

468.  In  modern  education  there  is  also  a  wealth  of  experi- 
ence in  conduct  training.  It  is  a  matter  of  habit  formation,  now 
so  carefully  analyzed  by  the  psychologists ;  depending  upon  a  notice 
of  the  early  trials  and  errors  of  the  person,  the  prompt  recognition 
of  the  right  response  when  it  comes,  the  rewarding  of  the  right 
action  and  penalizing  of  the  wrong,  and  strict  effort,  once  a  right 
response  is  fixed,  forever  to  prevent  a  relapse.  Right  conduct, 
whether  in  small  matters  like  golf,  motoring,  and  manners,  or  in 
important  matters  like  morals,  can  be  taught  directly,  not  as  a  by- 
product and  there  are  ways  of  teaching  that  are  right  and  ways 
that  are  wrong. 

It  is  here  that  association  with  men  and  women  of  char- 
acter has  its  greatest  value.  Students  imitate  not  only  the  teachers 
but  the  older  students,  thus  catching  the  spirit  of  the  school.  Right 
conduct  is  habituated,  and  the  tendency  to  relapse  is  diminished,  if 
right  examples  exclusively  surround  the  learner. 

469.  But  neither  moral  ideas,  nor  correct  moral  habits,  nor 
both  together,  are  certain  to  produce  the  moral  trustworthiness  that 
we  call  character.  To  both  these  must  be  added  an  ability  to  per- 
ceive the  principle  applicable  to  a  new,  previously  unexperienced  sit- 
uation, and  the  will  to  act  in  accordance  with  it.  The  moral  actions 
of  the  primitive  tribe  extended  only  to  their  traditional  environ- 
ment and  the  change  of  situation  caused  by  the  introduction  of 
foreign   ideas    frequently   brought   about   their    moral   downfall. 


278  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

Staid  citizens  with  high  standards  in  their  home  surroundings  be- 
came mightily  changed  when  they  entered  the  army,  doffing  not 
only  the  civilian  garb  but  the  manners,  customs,  and  social  controls 
of  home.  For  successful  character  building  it  is  necessary  to 
extend  the  attitude  of  moral  inquiry  from  the  original  situations  in 
which  it  is  taught,  to  new  situations  over  which  the  teacher  has 
no  control. 

470.  Out  of  this  necessity  of  preparing  one  to  act  rightly  in 
new  situations  arises  one  of  the  great  difficulties  in  the  formation 
of  character.  In  a  formal  way  we  may  teach  the  ideas ;  in  a 
definite  and  prescribed  way  we  may  teach  and  habituate  the  con- 
duct. But  the  combination  of  the  two  requires  so  large  an  educa- 
tional situation,  and  so  close  approximation  to  life  that  it  is  almost 
too  big  to  be  confined  within  the  walls  of  the  classroom.  Illustra- 
tions of  success  in  relating  moral  ideas  to  conduct  are  found  in 
the  Boy  Scout  movement,  the  plays,  games  and  school  life  of  the 
English  public  schools,  systems  of  student  self-government  and 
the  entrusting  of  responsibility  in  many  ways  to  immature  students. 
The  person  interested  in  this  phase  of  character  building  will  do 
well  to  read  the  Scout  Manual  and  watch  the  practical  application 
of  the  Scout  oath.  He  should  read  sections  of  "Tom  Brown's 
School  Days,"  and  especially  the  analysis  of  English  education  in 
"The  Brushwood  Boy"  by  Kipling.  Plays  and  games,  student 
activities  and  government,  social  relations,  provide  for  this  train- 
ing. It  should  be  noted,  however,  that  only  the  opportunity  is 
provided.  Mere  provision  does  not  guarantee  success.  Fine 
teachers  through  their  intimate  contact  with  students  can  assist 
the  process,  often  unconsciously,  but  far  more  often  in  a  carefully 
planned  way. 

It  is  also  well,  in  this  connection,  to  allow  student  consid- 
eration of  breaches  of  discipline  or  variations  from  proper  con- 
duct. If  the  teacher  alone  is  the  judge,  one  pupil  is  helped.  If 
many  pupils  are  allowed  to  judge,  the  educational  value  of  the 
object  lesson  is  extended. 

It  often  happens,  however,  that  real  life  situations  of 
this  sort  are  difficult  to  provide  in  a  school  environment;  teachers 


RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION  279 

are  too  few,  time  too  limited,  the  pupil's  stay  in  school  too  short. 
The  next  best  substitute  is  to  give  moral  knowledge  and  habituate 
moral  conduct  as  outlined  above,  making  every  effort  to  bridge  the 
gap  between  the  two.  Thus  instead  of  mere  moral  teachings,  suc- 
cessful teachers  make  use  of  biography.  Here  the  teaching  extends 
beyond  moral  statement  and  lives  in  the  life  of  some  person  in  the 
past.  The  life  of  John  Howard,  or  Abraham  Lincoln,  or  St.  Paul, 
or  Florence  Nightingale,  yields  not  merely  moral  maxims ;  it  also 
shows  the  working  of  these  in  an  environment  very  like  our  own. 
Another  successful  method  is  the  maxim  considered  fully  and  then 
applied  to  a  situation  quite  well  understood  by  the  student,  such  as 
is  found  in  the  pictured  stories  for  Sunday-schools.  These  are 
excellent  methods  of  giving  moral  ideas.  They  may  possibly  yield 
moral  conduct ;  and  when  they  do,  the  result  is  far  better  than  ideas 
taught  at  one  time,  and  conduct  at  another.  The  danger  is  that 
the  conduct  will  not  follow  ;  and  only  by  rich  experiences,  provided 
in  school  life  and  school  influence  outside  in  the  community,  may 
the  teacher  be  certain  that  his  purpose  has  been  accomplished. 

471.  Real  character,  however,  will  not  be  built  until  the 
student,  knowing  right  and  wrong,  habitually  right  in  conduct,  and 
usually  associating  conduct  with  the  idea  behind  it,  has  in  addi- 
tion the  facility  of  searching  out  right  ideals  in  new  situations  and 
following  them  with  corresponding  conduct.  This  can  never  be 
certain  of  achievement;  but  it  is  certain  that  there  will  be  far 
greater  likelihood,  if  the  pupils  are  practiced  in  meeting  diffi- 
cult moral  situations,  without  having  everything  prepared  for 
them. 

At  the  beginning,  it  would  be  well  to  make  use  of  the 
little  lessons  such  as  are  found  in  the  drawings  of  Mr.  Espey  of 
Shanghai.  Here  a  moral  situation  is  pictured  to  the  student,  and 
the  query  raised  as  to  the  right  form  of  conduct  to  take.  Other 
teachers  raise  a  question  in  class,  such  as  "What  should  you  do 
if  .  .  .  ?"  and  discussion  follows.  There  are  many  ways  in  which 
this  method  is  used ;  beginning  in  simple  form  and  gradually  be- 
coming more  complex,  the  student  is  trained  to  note  that  the 
simplest  moral  principles  have  very  wide  application  and  differing 


28o  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

application  in  differing  circumstances.  Here  also,  the  teacher 
can  not  be  certain  until  he  sees  the  result  in  conduct,  and  there 
must  be  great  ingenuity  used  by  teachers  and  principals  in  thrust- 
ing pupils  into  situations  where  such  moral  scrutiny  and  new 
application  are  needed.  Careful  study  of  the  practice  of  many 
famous  teachers  shows  that  time  and  again  they  put  tried  boys  and 
girls  into  difficult  places,  for  the  purpose  of  giving  them  a  chance 
to  test  the  powers  that  had  been  developed  after  long  and  hard 
effort.  This  is  difficult  to  provide,  but  it  is  necessary  if  we  would 
raise  character  building  from  a  by-product  to  a  particular  end  of 
the  educational  task. 

4/2.  The  thesis  of  this  chapter  is  that  true  character  is 
greater  than  mere  moral  knowledge  or  right  conduct.  It  rests  on 
the  conscious  following  of  right  ideals,  ideals  often  new  in  their 
particular  application.  The  Christian  school  that  consciously 
tries  to  build  character  must  therefore  include  four  objectives 
in  its  educational  scheme:  the  giving  of  knowledge  of  right  and 
wrong;  the  habituating  of  right  conduct;  the  relating  of  ideas  to 
conduct,  and  conduct  to  ideas ;  and  the  education  of  conscience, 
or  in  other  words  accustoming  a  pupil  to  seek  wider  application 
of  particular  moral  ideas,  and  following  them  out  in  conduct. 
Christian  schools  in  China  now  provide  all  these  elements,  but  not 
all  with  equal  skill  and  success.  Progress  will  depend  upon  study 
of  the  peculiar  reasons  for  the  success  of  certain  schools,  and  the 
use  of  these  methods  elsewhere. 

473.  In  undertaking  this  important  work  Christian  teachers 
have  a  great  advantage  in  the  fact  that  the  New  Testament  unifies 
all  its  ethical  and  religious  teaching  in  two  inclusive  comprehen- 
sive principles,  viz.,  faith  in  God  as  the  heavenly  Father  and 
regard  for  the  welfare  of  others  equally  with  one's  own  (in 
New  Testament  phraseology,  love),  and  furnishes  in  the  life  and 
personality  of  Jesus  a  perfect  exemplification  of  these  principles. 
Thus  it  not  only  simplifies  the  problem  by  substituting  for  a  long 
list  of  duties  these  two  central  principles,  of  which  all  specific 
commands  are  illustrations  and  to  which  they  are  subject,  but  by 
pointing  the  way  to  personal  fellowship  with  God  through  Jesus 


RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION  281 

Christ  provides  the  dynamic  for  the  control  of  conduct  and  the 
development  of  character. 

There  is  no  phase  of  the  work  of  the  Christian  educator 
in  China  which  more  insistently  demands  thought  and  attention 
than  the  task  of  making  the  ideals  of  Jesus  as  exemplified  in  his 
conduct  so  dominant  in  the  life  of  the  students  of  Christian 
schools  that  they  will  instinctively  and  habitually  act  in  accord- 
ance with  them  in  familiar  and  unfamiliar  situations.  To 
achieve  this,  bringing  the  matter  down  from  the  realm  of  ab- 
stract discussion  to  that  of  actual  realization  in  character  calls 
for  the  earnest  thought  and  effort  of  the  Christian  teacher. 

III.    Religions  Education  Through  tJic  Church  Service 

474.  The  work  of  the  churches  in  China  as  at  present  carried 
forward  does  not  provide  a  large  place  for  education.  We  rec- 
ognize at  once  that  the  organization  of  a  church  in  China  with  a 
director  of  religious  education  giving  all  his  eflfort  to  the  task 
which  essentially  belongs  to  such  a  director,  is  at  present  nearly 
impossible.  What  educational  effort  there  is  must  come  largely 
from  the  preacher  himself. 

From  all  that  we  can  learn,  the  preaching  from  most  of 
the  pulpits  of  the  churches  in  China  has  little  educative  value. 
Even  in  the  stronger  independent  congregations  the  complaint  is 
that  the  preacher  does  not  give  the  people  anything  to  think  about. 
The  sermons  are  for  the  most  part  hortatory.  There  seems  to  be 
little  attempt  to  get  hold  of  fresh  presentation  of  the  truth,  or 
even  to  organize  thought  for  effective  statement.  Discriminating 
listeners  to  Chinese  preaching  say  that  the  thought  runs  in  a  circle 
the  same  ideas  being  repeated  week  after  week  largely  in  the  same 
general  phrasing. 

475,  The  problem  then  is  that  which  has  so  often  confronted 
us  in  other  phases  of  our  study,  that  of  better  training  for  service 
in  China.  We  urge  upon  all  those  in  charge  of  the  selection  of 
candidates  for  the  Chinese  ministry,  the  necessity  of  training  in 
the  effective  presentation  of  thought  in  public  speech.     We  urge 


28-  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

upon  theological  schools  and  upon  those  directing  the  work  of  the 
preachers  the  emphasis  upon  a  Biblical  type  of  preaching.  The 
simple  telling  of  a  Bible  story  before  a  congregation  of  Chinese 
villagers,  and  Chinese  are  most  adept  at  story  telling,  ought  to  be 
more  interesting  and  effective  than  exhoftation.  This  would  re- 
quire on  the  part  of  the  preacher  constant  study  of  the  Bible,  but 
such  study  ought  not  to  be  impossible  with  the  resources  of  time 
at  the  command  of  the  preacher.  What  China  seems  to  need  for 
the  religious  instruction  of  the  church  is  an  emphasis  upon  the 
expository  type  of  preaching,  by  no  means  omitting  emphasis  on 
the  essential  aim  of  bringing  hearers  to  that  doing  of  the  Divine 
Will  which  leads  to  knowledge  of  the  Divine  Truth. 

476.  We  wish  to  reenforce  a  point  made  in  the  Chapter  on 
Agricultural  Education,  namely,  that  one  of  the  Sunday  services 
might  well  be  reorganized  to  make  it  a  sort  of  community  dis- 
cussion. Let  the  theme  for  discussion  be  anything  in  which  the 
community  happens  to  be  interested,  better  methods  of  farming  if 
the  community  is  rural.  Under  measurably  skillful  guidance  the 
discussion  can  be  given  a  worthy  moral  aim.  We  imply,  of  course, 
such  skillful  guidance,  not  an  aimless  conversation,  though  any 
elements  introduced  to  make  the  meeting  sociable  and  free  will 
be  well  worth  while.  Since  the  meeting  would  be  held  in  a  church, 
the  introduction  of  the  religious  element  would  be  expected,  but 
this  element  ought  not  to  be  so  prominent  as  to  discourage  the 
member  who  wants  to  talk  about  a  new  kind  of  fertilizer.  In 
other  words,  the  church  could  and  should  be  made  a  real  com- 
munity center  of  educative  power.  Of  course  we  realize  that  the 
minister  who  could  effectively  be  a  community  leader  is  of  the 
sort  who  could  preach  effectively.  The  problem  here  is  to  find  the 
man.  It  all  comes  back  to  adequate  training  and  support  of  the 
ministry. 

477.  The  children  whom  the  Sunday-school  in  China  desires 
to  reach  are  usually  divided  into  three  distinct  groups :  ( i )  the 
children  of  non-Christian  parents  who  know  nothing  of  Chris- 
tianity; (2)  the  children  of  the  church  members;  (3)  the  students 
in  the  Christian  schools.    The  third  group  may  overlap  both  others, 


REIJGIOUS  EDUCATION  283 

but  constitutes  a  distinct  problem  in  itself,  inasmuch  as  the  stu- 
dents in  Christian  schools  are  usually  receiving  daily  religious  in- 
struction, and  are  by  no  means  dependent  upon  the  church  for 
such  teachings. 

The  China  Sunday  School  Journal  classifies  Sunday 
schools  as  follows : — 

( 1 )  The  regular  "church"  Sunday-school. 

(2)  The  "student"  Sunday-school,  the  membership  of 
which  is  "composed  of  pupils  and  teachers  regularly  engaged  in 
ordinary  school  work,"  and  in  which  the  attendance  is  usually 
non-voluntary. 

(3)  The  "neighborhood"  Sunday-school,  intended  espe- 
cially for  children  of  non-Christian  families,  which  is  usually  con- 
ducted as  a  mission  of  some  church  and  held  either  in  a  separate 
building  or  at  a  separate  hour. 

(4)  The  "expository"  Sunday-school  which  is  an  exposi- 
tory preaching  service,  led  by  preacher  or  Bible  teacher.  "In  this 
form  of  Sunday-school  there  is  little  question  and  answer,  and  no 
attempt  at  grading  or  classification  beyond  that  of  men,  women, 
and  children,  and  possibly  members  and  inquirers." 

(5)  The  "church-student"  Sunday-school  which  is  said 
to  comprise  the  largest  number  of  regular  Sunday-schools  in 
China.  Two-thirds  of  the  children  are  temporary  students  in  the 
mission  educational  institution,  the  remainder  being  the  church 
members,  inquirers,  and  outsiders  belonging  to  the  local  church 
community. 

478.  It  may  be  questioned  whether  the  "church-student"  Sun- 
day-school can  possibly  do  effective  work,  with  so  heterogeneous  a 
group,  and  whether  it  might  not  be  well  for  the  church  to  con- 
centrate its  efforts  on  giving  religious  instruction  to  the  children 
who  are  wholly  dependent  upon  it  for  any  ChrisJ;ian  teaching,  hold- 
ing the  Christian  schools  responsible  for  giving  such  teaching  to 
their  pupils.  It  is  surely  far  more  important  that  a  strong  Sunday- 
school  be  built  up  for  children  from  non-Christian  families,  where 
the  only  chance  of  learning  Christianity  is  in  such  a  school,  than 
to  give  one  more  hour  a  week  of  religious  instruction  to  children 


284  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

already  receiving  it  daily  in  the  Christian  schools.  It  is  not  pos- 
sible to  meet  the  needs  of  both  these  groups  effectively  in  the  same 
school.  There  is  moreover  real  danger  of  turning  children  against 
religion  if  too  much  religious  instruction  is  imposed  upon  them. 
For  the  older  students,  at  least,  it  would  be  better  to  provide  a 
channel  of  expression  for  the  truths  they  have  been  learning  in 
their  schools  throughout  the  week,  than  one  more  hour  of  religious 
teaching.  Christian  schools  may  well  furnish  many  of  the  teach- 
ers for  the  church  and  neighborhood  Sunday-schools,  and  groups 
of  older  students  may,  as  is  now  the  case  in  many  schools,  organize 
and  conduct  Sunday-schools  in  places  where  there  are  no  churches. 

479.  It  is  a  question,  too,  whether  the  children  of  church 
members  and  those  of  non-Christians  can  be  most  effectively  cared 
for  in  the  same  school.  The  difficulty  increases  as  the  children 
grow  older.  The  teaching  needed  by  children  familiar  from  their 
birth  with  the  Christian  truth,  is  very  different  from  that  required 
by  children  to  whom  the  gospel  story  is  a  wholly  new  one.  On 
the  whole  it  would  seem  better  to  care  for  the  children  of  members 
of  the  church  in  a  Sunday-school  of  their  own ;  for  the  children 
of  non-Christians  in  a  school  held  at  another  hour  or  in  a  separate 
building;  and  to  face  frankly  the  question  whether  Sunday-school 
attendance  should  be  expected  of  children  in  Christian  schools 
who  are  receiving  religious  teaching  throughout  the  week,  until 
they  are  qualified  to  join  the  teaching  staff  of  the  Sunday-school. 

480.  In  China,  even  more  than  in  other  countries,  the  religious 
instruction  of  adults  is  one  of  the  important  tasks  of  the  church. 
In  dealing  with  this  problem  it  must  be  remembered  that  many 
church  members  cannot  read  easily,  that  many  of  them  have  no 
great  familiarity  with  Christian  truth,  since  they  are  first  genera- 
tion Christians,  and  that  because  China  is  a  non-Christian  country, 
many  adults  are  not  much  more  free  for  study  and  worship  on 
Sunday  than  on  other  days.  Giving  religious  education  to  adults 
is  a  far  more  difficult  problem  here  than  in  Christian  countries. 

Among  the  adults  whom  the  Christian  forces  should  be 
definitely  planning  to  reach  with  religious  education  are  the  stu- 
dents in  government  and  private  schools.     These  schools  are  in 


RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION  285 

most  cases  open  to  Christian  influences.  Even  when  it  is  not  pos- 
sible to  hold  courses  in  religious  education  within  the  schools  them- 
selves, the  students  are  usually  free  to  attend  them  elsewhere. 
The  Young  Men's  and  the  Young  Women's  Christian  Associations 
have  rightly  been  requested  by  the  missions  to  make  these  students 
their  special  care,  and  are  doing  so.  The  fact  that  they  are  inter- 
denominational, that  they  are  not  churches,  that  they  combine  edu- 
cational, recreational,  and  social  features  with  their  religious  work, 
that  they  are  a  natural  medium  for  interschool  relationships,  and 
that  they  already  have  popularity  and  prestige  with  the  government 
and  private  schools,  makes  them  the  natural  leaders  in  coordinat- 
ing the  work  of  the  Christian  forces  for  this  important  group.  It 
is  necessary,  however,  that  they  have  the  cooperation  of  the 
churches  in  their  work. 


IV.    Religions  Education  in  Week  Day  Schools 

481.  There  can  be  no  question  that  definite  religious  instruc- 
tion should  be  a  part  of  the  curriculum  of  every  Christian  school 
in  China.  Whether  a  school  is  conducted  for  the  children  of  Chris- 
tians with  the  purpose  of  equipping  them  for  life;  or  for  the  chil- 
dren of  non-Christians  for  the  purpose  of  winning  them  to  Chris- 
tianity; or  for  the  children  of  non-Christians  not  primarily  with 
a  view  to  their  conversion  but  looking  to  their  larger  equipment  for 
life  and  the  gradual  permeation  of  the  non-Christian  community 
with  Christian  ideas;  or  for  both  Christians  and  non-Christians 
with  a  view  to  the  development  of  a  strong  Christian  community; 
instruction  in  religion  is  essential  to  the  most  eflfective  fulfilment 
of  the  purpose  of  each  and  every  Christian  school  in  China.  Its 
inclusion  in  the  work  offered  all  students  needs  no  apologies  by 
schools  which  are  avowedly  Christian  schools,  and  which  have 
been  established  for  the  purpose  of  giving  to  young  Chinese  people 
the  best  possible  equipment  for  life,  the  most  important  element 
of  which  is  the  achievement  of  high  character. 

482.  Whether  or  not  all  students  should  be  required  to  take 


286  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

courses  in  religion  is  a  question  deserving  careful  thought.  The 
answer  to  it  may  be  a  different  one  in  the  case  of  the  primary 
school  from  that  in  the  case  of  the  college  or  even  the  middle  school. 
On  the  one  hand,  it  may  be  urged  that  if  a  school  is  known  to  be 
a  Christian  school,  supported  by  Christian  missions,  and  if  parents 
and  students  understand  that  courses  in  religion  are  required,  it 
is  wholly  reasonable  to  put  among  the  required  subjects  those 
covu-ses  which  will  give  students  a  knowledge  of  the  religion  which 
is  our  best  gift  to  China.  On  the  other  hand,  experience  has  some- 
times indicated  that  to  require  a  student,  against  his  will,  to  study 
a  religion  other  than  his  own,  is  to  create  a  defensive,  even  antag- 
onistic attitude,  toward  that  religion.  Moreover,  it  may  well  be 
that  if  the  teacher  of  a  course  on  religion  does  not  have  to  compete 
with  other  courses,  he  may  almost  unconsciously  allow  himself  to 
offer  a  less  vital,  vigorous,  and  attractive  course,  than  he  would 
give  if  students  were  not  forced  to  take  the  work  whether  it  was 
interestingly  given  or  not.  Perhaps,  in  most  cases,  a  middle  ground 
of  requiring  a  few  basal  courses,  but  making  the  majority  of  them 
electives,  will  be  the  wisest  plan. 

483.  If,  however,  a  school  makes  any  courses  in  religion  a  part 
of  its  required  work,  it  thereby  puts  itself  under  obligation  to  give 
as  thorough,  strong,  and  attractive  courses  in  this  subject  as  in 
any  other  subject.  It  should  not  be  assumed  that  such  work  can 
be  given  by  every  Christian  teacher  in  the  school.  Many  earnest 
Christians  have  not  had  the  opportunities  for  special  study  and 
training  in  religious  education  which  are  required  for  strong 
teaching  in  the  subject.  No  Christian  school  should  put  its  work 
in  religious  education  into  the  hands  of  teachers  not  as  well 
equipped  to  deal  with  their  subject,  as  are  those  who  are  giving 
the  courses  in  science.  It  may  be  expedient  in  all  cases  to  have 
all  the  religious  instruction  given  by  a  teacher  who  does  this  work 
only.  But  whether  this  be  the  case  or  not,  the  .work  in  this  field 
should  be  equal  to  the  best.  We  fear  this  is  not  always  the  case, 
but  that  very  often  the  courses  on  religion  and  the  Bible  are  the 
poorest  that  are  offered. 

484.  It  is  sometimes  urged  that  every  teacher  in  a  Chris- 


RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION  287 

tian  school  covets  the  opportunity  to  teach  at  least  one  Bible 
class,  and  that  to  have  a  special  faculty  on  religious  education 
seems  to  suggest  to  the  students  that  these  members  of  the  stafif 
have  a  keener  interest  in  religion  than  those  who  are  teaching  so- 
called  secular  subjects.  Surely  there  are  innumerable  ways,  other 
than  the  teaching  of  a  curriculum  Bible  class,  by  which  teachers 
may  influence  the  spiritual  lives  of  their  students,  and  by  which 
they  may  make  unmistakably  clear  their  supreme  interest  in  the 
fundamental  Christian  purpose  of  the  school.  Religious  educa- 
tion is  a  subject  worthy  of  the  best-trained  teachers  it  is  possible 
to  secure. 

In  order  that  every  teacher  responsible  for  giving  in- 
struction in  religious  education  may  be  equipped  for  this  task, 
whether  he  be  teaching  in  a  lower  primary  grade,  or  on  a  uni- 
versity staiT,  all  plans  made  for  training  teachers  of  every  grade 
should  include  careful  attention  to  the  training  in  this  funda- 
mentally important  subject. 

485.  The  problem  of  the  courses  in  religion  in  Christian 
schools  in  China  is  a  complex  one,  which  should  receive  thorough 
study.  It  requires  a  study  not  only  of  such  matters  as  the 
religious  psychology  of  children,  of  adolescents,  and  young  adults ; 
of  religious  pedagogy;  of  the  adaptation  of  diflferent  sections  of 
the  Bible  and  different  aspects  of  its  teaching  to  students  of  dif- 
ferent ages;  but  also  of  the  special  problems  created  by  the  fact 
that  these  schools  are  in  a  non-Christian  country,  that  the  children 
in  them  are  in  constant  contact  with  the  influences  of  non-Chris- 
tian religions,  their  temples,  teaching,  worship,  customs,  and 
superstitions ;  that  some  of  the  students  are  from  Christian  homes, 
where  they  have  received  Christian  teaching  from  childhood; 
while  other  students  in  the  same  schools  come  from  non-Christian 
homes,  and  have  known  nothing  whatever  of  Christianity. 

486.  It  may  be  laid  down  as  a  general  rule  that  the  courses 
in  religion  given  to  Chinese  students  should  take  account  of  the 
ethical  teachings  of  the  sages  of  China,  which  many  of  the  stu- 
dents have  been  taught  to  revere,  with  which  all  are  familiar,  and 
which  may  be  made  stepping  stones  to  fuller  knowledge.    Not  less 


288  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

important  is  the  application  of  the  truths  taught  to  the  particular 
needs  of  the  Chinese  people  and  the  Chinese  nation. 

The  mapping  out  of  such  courses  of  study  calls  for  the 
efforts  of  specialists.  There  should  be  some  permanent  group  of 
well  equipped  men  and  women  giving  their  best  thought  to  the 
problem  of  how  Christianity  may  be  most  effectively  taught  in 
the  schools  of  China,  from  the  kindergarten  to  the  university. 
The  religious  work  departments  of  the  Young  Men's  and  the 
Young  Women's  Christian  Associations  have  given  much  thought 
to  the  question  of  courses  for  students  in  religion,  and  although 
most  of  the  texts  they  have  published  have  been  intended  espe- 
cially for  extra-curriculum  classes,  these  organizations  should  be 
able  to  offer  valuable  help  in  the  solution  of  the  problem  as  ap- 
plied to  Christian  schools  of  all  types. 

487.  That  there  is  need  of  such  study  is  evident  as  one  looks 
at  the  courses  offered  in  religion  in  schools  in  China  to-day.  Many 
teachers  have  expressed  a  desire  for  help  in  planning  courses  along 
this  line,  realizing  that  there  is  often  repetition  in  the  work  given, 
that  the  order  in  which  courses  are  offered  may  or  may  not  be 
logical  or  psychological,  that  the  proportion  between  Old  Testa- 
ment and  New  Testament  is  often  a  purely  arbitrary  one,  and 
that  the  entire  course  has  been  planned  without  sufficient  knowl- 
edge of  the  principles  which  should  govern  its  planning.  Some 
schools  have  had  no  other  principle  than  that  of  following  the 
order  of  the  books  of  the  Bible,  beginning  with  Genesis.  A 
school  should  not  be  expected  to  work  out  its  own  course.  A 
group  of  experts  should  give  thought  to  this  most  important  mat- 
ter, and  suggest  schemes  of  study  which  may  be  adapted  to  the 
needs  of  individual  schools. 

488.  It  goes  without  saying  that  although  such  sul)jects  as 
comparative  religion  and  biographies  of  Christian  men  and  women 
have  an  important  place  in  any  scheme  of  religious  education,  the 
Bible  should  be  the  basis  of  most  of  the  courses.  Too  much 
emphasis  cannot  be  laid  upon  the  importance  of  so  teaching  the 
Biblical  courses  that  they  shall  stimulate  the  student  mentally, 
morally,  and  spiritually.     A  Bible  class  which  does  not  make  the 


RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION  289 

student  do  vigorous  thinking,  and  does  not  add  to  his  intellectual 
treasures,  is  not  a  good  class.  On  the  other  hand,  a  Bible  class 
which  imparts  information,  but  does  not  invigorate  and  strengthen 
the  student's  moral  and  religious  life,  is  also  a  failure. 

A  thoughtful  Chinese  woman,  a  third  generation  Chris- 
tian, and  an  earnest  Christian  worker,  confessed  that  when  she 
left  middle  school  it  was  with  the  resolution  never  to  open  her 
Bible  again,  so  weary  was  she  of  the  uninteresting  required  Bible 
study  which  she  had  had  throughout  her  school  years.  Her  col- 
lege Bible  study  opened  a  new  and  wonderful  storehouse  of  truth 
to  her.  But  many  a  student  does  not  go  on  to  college.  Every 
middle  school,  every  primary  school,  should  have  such  Bible  teach- 
ing that  so  far  from  desiring  never  to  open  the  Bible  again,  the 
students  should  finish  the  course  with  a  keen  sense  of  the  value 
of  the  Bible  for  daily  living  and  an  appetite  for  further  study. 

489.  In  addition  to  classroom  instruction  the  service  of 
worship  is  a  valuable  means  of  religious  education.  Here  again  the 
question  of  the  compulsory  attendance  of  the  student  is  a  per- 
plexing one.  Some  educators  who  believe  that  it  is  wholly  justi- 
fiable to  require  students  to  attend  classes  of  instruction  about  a 
religion  other  than  their  own,  hesitate  to  require  them  to  attend 
Christian  services  of  worship.  Whether  school  chapel  service  is 
compulsory  or  not,  it  should  be  made  so  vital,  so  attractive,  so 
truly  worshipful,  that  students  will  wish  to  attend  it. 

Some  schools  lay  emphasis  on  the  creation  and  develop- 
ment of  the  mood  of  worship  through  the  chapel  service.  It  is 
held  in  a  room  built  for  the  purpose,  the  very  lines  and  coloring 
of  which  are  conducive  to  worship.  The  service  is  reverent  and 
dignified,  given  wholly  to  the  things  of  the  spirit.  Perhaps  some 
of  us  do  not  fully  appreciate  this  means  of  religious  education, 
yet  to  many  an  impressionable  student,  the  atmosphere  and  spirit 
of  worship  may  teach  more  of  Christianity  than  many  a  talk 
about   it. 

490.  A  third  means  of  religious  education  is  participation 
of  the  students  in  the  voluntary  religious  activities  and  organiza- 
tions of  the  school.     The  influence  which  is  thus  exercised  can 


290  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

be  exerted  in  no  other  way.  The  Young  Men's  and  the  Young 
Women's  Christian  Associations  not  only  give  students  opportu- 
nity for  expression  of  the  Christian  spirit  and  ideals,  which  they 
are  learning  in  the  school,  but  also  for  sharing  in  the  fellowship 
and  service  of  these  voluntary  Christian  organizations,  itself  one 
of  the  most  effective  methods  of  learning  about  Christianity,  It  is 
through  these  organizations  also  that  students  come  into  natural 
fellowship  with  the  members  of  the  Associations  in  other  schools. 
Such  interschool  Christian  fellowship  in  service  undertaken  to- 
gether, in  summer  conferences  and  the  like,  can  mean  no  less  in 
China  than  it  has  meant  for  years  to  students  in  Great  Britain 
and  America. 


V.    Religious  Education  in  the  Home  ^ 

491.  The  home  in  China  is  still  an  uncultivated  field  for 
Christian  religious  education.  According  to  the  report  of  the 
China  Continuation  Committee,  published  in  1917,  after  a  study 
of  the  Wu-Han  District  on  the  subject  of  daily  worship  in  the 
homes  of  church  members,  two-thirds  of  the  church  members 
live  in  homes  where  the  influence  is  predominantly  non-Christian, 
and  approximately  only  twenty-two  per  cent  of  Christians  are 
living  in  homes  which  have  daily  prayer.  When  it  is  considered 
that  only  one  in  a  thousand  of  the  population  of  China  is  Christian, 
it  is  clear  that  if  China  is  to  be  Christianized  the  large  number  of 
non-Christian  homes,  as  well  as  those  that  are  Christian,  present 
large  opportunities  for  service  and  work. 

492.  Religious  education  in  the  non-Christian  Jiomes. — This 
line  of  work  has  been  and  still  is  being  carried  on  to  some  extent 
by  certain  evangelistic  agencies.  Students  of  different  schools 
often  give  time,  aside  from  their  academic  work,  to  the  visitation 
of  their  neighborhood  homes,  teaching,  helping  and  making  friends. 
The  purpose  is  that,  in  some  way  or  other,  Christianity  may  be 
introduced  into  these  homes.  There  are  those  who  are  hired  by 
churches  and  schools  for  this  special  line  of  work,  and  they  are 

'  This  section  was  prepared  by  a  Chinese  educator. 


RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION  291 

known  as  "Bible  Women."  These  workers  are  often  equipped 
only  with  primary  education  and  a  limited  knowledge  of  the  Bible. 
They  are  sent  out  day  by  day  to  visit  homes  in  country  and  city. 
Sometimes  a  Bible  woman  is  accompanied  by  a  foreigner  as  her 
supervisor,  advisor  or  helper.  They  usually  undertake  direct 
evangelistic  work,  preaching,  singing  or  teaching.  Through  these 
workers  women  and  children  in  many  families  are  taught  to  read 
simple  religious  books,  to  sing  a  few  songs,  to  accept  the  Christian 
faith,  and  are  even  led  to  join  the  church. 

The  place  of  these  Bible  women  should  be  made  much  more 
dignified  and  efifective.  Their  education  should  be  above  the  higher 
primary  school  and  should  include  good  courses  in  the  Bible  and 
training  for  social  service.  They  should  be  acquainted  with  the 
family  conditions  of  their  environment,  the  place  of  women  and 
children  in  society,  the  different  kinds  of  philanthropic  work,  and 
their  own  responsibility  for  the  uplift  of  those  for  whom  they 
work.  The  complicated  system  of  the  Chinese  family,  where  three 
or  four  generations  live  in  the  same  house;  where  polygamy  is 
still  in  practice;  where  economic  conditions  are  unfavorable  to 
many ;  where  illiteracy  still  prevails;  and  where  the  place  of  woman 
in  many  homes  is  still  lower  than  that  of  man,  produces  many 
unhappy  homes  and  broken  hearts.  If  religious  education  could 
be  introduced  into  such  families  through  applied  Christian  service 
of  different  kinds,  the  results  of  the  work  would,  no  doubt,  be  a 
hundredfold.  For  the  blind  to  lead  the  blind  is  impracticable.  But 
a  religious  leader  like  this  should  not  only  be  able  to  see,  but  also 
to  see  with  clear-sightedness,  and  should  be  equipped  with  a  good 
and  sound  education  and  inspired  with  true  love  and  sympathy 
for  her  sisters  in  the  home. 

493.  Religions  edncation  in  the  Christian  homes. — Very  little 
has  been  done  in  China  to  stimulate  and  direct  parents  to  the  reali- 
zation of  their  high  duties  in  respect  to  the  moral  and  religious 
development  of  the  family.  According  to  the  China  Continuation 
Committee  report,  the  reasons  given  by  Christian  families  for  the 
non-observance  of  family  v.'orship  are:  (i)  inability  to  read; 
(2)    frequent  absence  from  home  of  the  only  one  able  to  lead 


292  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

prayers;  (3)  family  too  busy;  (4)  opposition  from  non-Christian 
element  in  the  family;  (5)  general  indifiference.  A  sixth  reason 
ought  to  be  included,  which  is  that  parents  do  not  know  that  the 
duty  of  religious  education  of  their  children  does  not  rest  wholly 
with  the  Sunday-school  or  Christian  school,  but  with  themselves. 
The  above  reasons  might  also  be  given  for  the  neglect  of  all 
phases  of  religious  education  in  the  home.  It  is  true  that  many 
of  the  parents  of  Christian  families  are  handicapped  by  the  above 
causes,  but,  when  they  are  well  trained  themselves  and  are  real, 
earnest  Christians,  the  problem  of  time  and  opposition  from  non- 
Christians  will  become  small  matters.  The  adequate  training  of 
parents  in  their  religious  duties  in  the  home  is  very  important. 
Unless  the  parents  of  Christian  families  are  true  and  earnest 
Christians  themselves,  unless  they  are  educated,  and  unless  they 
realize  that  the  home,  where  their  duties  are,  must  be  both  educa- 
tional and  religious,  they  will  not  be  able  to  bring  up  properly- 
trained   Christian  children. 

Christian  homes  provide  the  best  ground  for  eflfective 
religious  and  moral  education.  The  home  is  the  place  where  the 
religious  and  moral  ideas  of  the  child  grow  and  find  expression. 
A  child  of  a  certain  Christian  Chinese  family  was  known  to  dislike 
Heaven  because  whenever  a  friend  or  relative  went  there  her 
mother  wept.  Another  child,  whose  mother  had  made  him  a 
promise  of  a  gift,  was  known  to  pray  that  God  might  prevent  his 
mother  from  telling  a  lie.  Children  of  China,  like  those  of  other 
nations,  like  to  ask  questions,  especially  along  the  lines  of  religion, 
which  they  do  not  fully  understand.  How  are  our  Christian 
parents  meeting  these  demands?  What  kind  of  education  must 
they  receive  so  as  to  be  prepared  for  the  training  of  their  children? 
The  parents  of  the  Christian  home  must  realize  the  harm  of 
uneducated  affections.  Their  punishments  and  rewards  must  be 
timely  and  reasonable.  As  judges  in  the  quarrels  between  their 
children  and  those  of  their  neighbors,  they  must  be  perfectly 
square ;  they  must  realize  that  it  is  harmful  to  teach  their  children 
to  punish  the  floor  after  a  fall.  They  must  know  how  to  love  their 
children  in  the  way  that  God  loves  mankind. 


RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION  293 

494.  The  Chinese  idea  of  family  relationship  and  social  obli- 
gations should  help  children  to  understand  the  idea  of  the  larger 
world  family,  the  fatherhood  of  God,  the  brotherhood  of  man, 
and  their  obligations  toward  them.  Filial  piety,  reverence  for  the 
elder  persons,  love,  loyalty,  propriety,  self-denial,  and  the  different 
social  relationships,  which  are  taught  so  much  by  the  sages  of 
China,  ought  to  be  given  a  double  emphasis  with  the  world-family 
in  view.  The  reverence  for  God  should  be  given  expression  in  all 
kinds  of  worship  like  regular  family  prayer,  church  attendance, 
the  saying  of  grace  at  meals,  and  individual  prayer.  All  worship 
must  be  spontaneous,  a  natural  portion  of  family  life  and  program, 
and  something  to  look  forward  to.  If  family  worship  is  forced 
and  unintelligently  led  there  is  great  danger. 

495.  Festival  days  are  looked  forward  to  by  children  with 
great  interest.  Parents  ought  to  take  this  opportunity  to  convey 
to  their  children  the  significant  religious  meaning  of  each  one  of 
those  that  are  observed.  Christmas  should  not  be  adopted  simply 
as  a  day  for  gifts.  Easter  should  add  to  the  family  the  meaning  of 
a  new  life.  New  Year's  should  be  celebrated  with  the  aspiration 
and  blessing  from  above.  A  few  of  the  Chinese  festivals  may  be 
observed  to  the  advantage  of  children.  The  full  moon,  the  winter 
festivals,  and  the  like,  not  only  add  to  the  enjoyment  of  the  home 
but  also  contain  meanings  of  thanksgiving  and  gratitude.  Lessons 
should  be  taught  from  the  observance  of  each  of  those  that  are 
observed. 

After  all  the  good  example  of  the  parents  is  the  most  im- 
portant factor  in  religious  education  in  the  home.  Parents  cannot 
expect  children  to  live  peacefully  unless  they  are  at  peace  them- 
selves. Children  cannot  be  expected  to  deal  fairly  and  truthfully 
with  those  around  them  unless  the  parents  should  behave  likewise. 
As  far  as  the  parents  are  Christians,  so  will  their  children  be. 

496.  A  Christian  atmosphere  should  prevail  in  the  Christian 
home.  The  Christian  spirit  cannot  be  taught  but  must  be  caught. 
To  live  Christianity  is  the  most  important  method  of  religious 
education,  especially  in  the  home.  Children  should  acquire  the 
habit  of  treating  animals,  the  weak,  the  sick,  the  younger,  and  the 


294  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

servants  of  the  home  kindly  and  sympathetically.  They  must 
learn  to  look  upon  housework,  or  any  other  kind  of  work,  not  as 
drudgery,  but  as  pleasure.  They  must  remember  that  the  good  is 
always  better  than  the  bad,  and  that  living  Christ-like  lives  wins 
the  love  of  God  and  their  fellowmen. 

497.  The  church,  the  Young  Women's  Christian  Association, 
the  theological  seminaries,  the  Bible  training  schools  and  the  week- 
day Christian  schools  are  asked  to  pay  special  attention  to  the  ques- 
tion of  religious  education  in  the  home. 

The  theological  seminaries  should  teach  the  ministers 
and  preachers  to  realize  that  their  responsibility  does  not  end  with 
the  pulpit ;  neither  can  it  be  limited  to  church  affairs  in  general, 
but  extends  to  the  individuals  in  the  homes.  They  should  empha- 
size the  importance  of  the  knowledge  of  the  Bible  and  of  familv 
worship  and  Christian  living  among  the  Christian  families  to  which 
they  minister,  and  their  own  homes  should  be  models  to  the  families 
of  their  church  members.  In  order  to  develop  the  religious  atmos- 
phere, Bible  classes,  as  far  as  possible,  should  be  conducted  in  the 
homes  and  should  aim  to  help  the  parents  in  influencing  and  train- 
ing their  children.  Mothers'  meetings  and  lectures  for  the  same 
purpose  should  be  encouraged. 

The  Bible  students  who  are  being  prepared  for  the 
evangelization  of  the  non-Christian  homes  must  be  highly  trained 
intellectually,  physically,  spiritually  and  socially.  Their  salaries 
should  be  respectable  and  should  enable  them  to  dress  and  live 
decently,  and  to  help  others  financially. 

The  Christian  schools  are  reminded  that  students  of  this 
generation  have  an  immense  opportunity  to  influence  their  own 
homes  and  homes  of  their  neighbors.  They  should  be  inspired  with 
the  spirit  of  sharing  the  duty  of  religious  education  in  the  homes. 

In  conclusion,  the  Commission  desires  to  reiterate  the 
statement  made  at  the  beginning  that  the  problems  with  which  this 
chapter  deals  have  as  yet  found  no  fully  satisfactory  solution  either 
in  China  or  in  Christian  lands.  The  discussion  of  the  subject  in  this 
chapter  is  intended  rather  to  emphasize  the  necessity  of  further 
study  than  to  solve  the  problems  raised.    In  the  full  recognition  of 


RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION  295 

this  situation  the  Commission  urges  that  definite  organized  effort 
be  made  by  the  Christian  forces  of  China  to  find  a  solution  of 
them  for  the  Christian  community  in  China.  They  should  receive 
the  serious  attention  of  the  proposed  Institute  of  Educational 
Research.     Sections  251-258. 


CHAPTER  XIV 
THE  EDUCATION  GF  WRITERS 

498.  The  printed  page  has  always  been  treated  in  China 
with  a  reverence  nowhere  else  accorded  it.  The  following  quota- 
tion from  a  recent  writer  illustrates  this  traditional  respect :  "Not 
a  scrap  of  paper  that  has  written  or  printed  on  it  even  a  single 
'character'  is  willingly  allowed  to  be  blown  about  carelessly  or 
trampled  underfoot.  These  precious  bits,  soiled  and  torn  though 
they  may  be,  are  laboriously  picked  up  by  men  or  boys  armed  with 
tongs  or  pin-pointed  sticks,  who  travel  to  and  fro  through  the 
streets  in  search  of  them.  The  well-to-do  hire  proxies  to  per- 
form this  meritorious  work.  The  paper  is  carried  to  the  public 
oven  where  it  is  burned,  and  the  ashes  afterwards  thrown  out  in 
the  river.  The  belief  is  millenniums  old  that  heaven  vouchsafes 
special  blessings  to  those  who  show  due  regard  for  the  sacred 
symbols  of  knowledge." 

It  is  not  easy  to  overstate  the  influence  of  the  printed 
page  in  China.  The  potential  influence  of  books,  magazines,  and 
articles  on  the  life  of  this  great  nation  is  probably  beyond  any- 
thing exerted  by  the  printed  page  in  western  lands,  where  there 
is  no  such  traditional  reverence  for  it,  and  where  the  never-ceasing 
Niagara  of  newspapers,  magazines  and  books  tends  to  result  in 
rather  casual  and  desultory  reading. 

499.  Within  the  last  few  years,  moreover,  there  has  been 
a  great  intellectual  awakening,  or  "New  Thought  Tide,"  which 
among  other  progressive  reforms  has  made  jjopular  the  language 
of  common  speech  and  has  demonstrated  its  fitness  for  serving 
as  a  vehicle  for  philosophy,  science,  essays,  poetry  and  all  other 

296 


THE  EDUCATION  OF  WRITERS  297 

forms  of  literary  expression.  Hundreds  of  quarterlies,  monthlies 
and  weeklies,  as  well  as  numerous  books  on  all  subjects,  are  be- 
ing issued  under  the  urge  of  this  new  and  amazingly  popular 
literary  revolution.  Begun  in  university  circles  in  Peking,  it  is 
sweeping  through  the  entire  student  life  of  China  and  is  making 
itself  felt  among  the  reading  classes  everywhere. 

It  is  particularly  regrettable  that  at  this  time  of  ferment 
and  plasticity  the  Christian  forces  are  able  to  make  so  little  use  of 
so  great  an  instrument  for  influencing  thought  and  action.  There 
is  no  means  of  estimating  the  influence  which  might  be  exerted 
in  the  formation  of  the  future  political,  economic,  social,  moral, 
and  spiritual  life  of  China  by  literature  shot  through  with  the 
Christian  spirit  and  Christian  ideals.  There  is  need,  great  need, 
of  specifically  Christian  literature,  but  there  is  also  need  of  news- 
papers, magazines,  novels,  poetry,  essays,  articles,  literature  of  all 
types,  written  by  men  and  women  who  know  how  to  write  so  well 
that  their  writings  appeal  by  their  attractiveness  and  literary  value, 
but  who  also  write  with  the  purpose  of  forming  public  opinion 
and  uniting  minds  and  purposes  on  behalf  of  all  that  is  strongest 
and  finest  and  most  Christian. 

The  report  of  the  National  Committee  of  the  Young 
Women's  Christian  Association  for  1921  contains  an  interesting 
paragraph.  The  statement  made  regarding  women  is  probably  a 
little  more  extreme  than  would  be  true  of  men,  but  not  much  more. 

"Generally  speaking,  the  literature  situation  in  China  is 
critical  and  of  central  significance  to  a  degree  which  could  not 
obtain  in  a  western  country.  The  language  is  going  through  a 
tremendous  upheaval,  comparable  only  to  what  happened  in  Europe 
in  the  Middle  Ages.  The  ability  of  girls  and  women  in  the  field 
of  writing  is  almost  as  undeveloped  and  unthought  of  as  then ; 
we  face  an  overwhelming  need  for  modern  Chinese  publications 
and  it  is  probably  safe  to  say  that  there  is  not  a  woman  in  China 
who  would  as  yet  feel  herself  equipped  to  write  well  in  the  new 
form  of  expression." 

500.    In  view  of  this  situation,  few  things  seem  more  urgent 
than  the  development  of  a  thoroughly  strong  school  of  literature 


298  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

in  connection  with  some  well  equipped  college  or  university,  which 
shall  train  writers  for  all  types  of  literature,  its  aim  being  to 
prepare  thoroughly  equipped  writers  and  editors,  in  whose  hands 
the  printed  page,  be  it  in  newspaper,  text  book,  novel,  magazine, 
current  article  or  treatise,  shall  help  to  infuse  all  China's  life  with 
the  Christian  spirit  and  Christian  ideals.  Special  attention  should 
be  given  also  to  translating  or  adapting  western  material.  The 
Commission  recommends  the  establishment  of  such  a  school  of 
literature  in  connection  with  Peking  University. 


CHAPTER   XV 

THE  EDUCATIONAL  WORK  OF  THE  CHRISTIAN 
ASSOCIATIONS 

I.    The  General  Scope  and  Purpose  of  Their  Work 

501.  The  symbol  of  the  Young  Men's  Christian  Association 
the  world  around  is  a  red  triangle,  that  of  the  Young  Women's 
Christian  Association  a  blue  one.  It  is  thus  that  the  Christian 
Associations  indicate  their  threefold  programme  of  ministry  to  the 
physical,  intellectual,  and  spiritual  needs  of  young  men  and  women. 
The  missionary  bodies  which  antedated  them  in  China,  believed 
that  the  Associations  had  a  distinct  contribution  to  make  to  the 
whole  task  of  Christian  education  in  China  along  each  of  these 
three  lines,  and  they  are  in  China  to-day  as  a  result  of  this  belief, 
and  in  response  to  the  request  of  the  other  missions. 

II.    Physical  and  Health  Education 

502.  The  training  of  physical  directors. — The  report  of  the 
Commission  emphasizes,  in  numerous  places,  the  importance  of 
physical  training  as  a  part  of  all  education,  and  the  value  of  play 
and  recreation  in  the  development  of  character.  The  Chapter  on 
Physical  and  Health  Education  emphasizes  the  need  of  directors 
for  physical  education  and  recreation  in  school  and  community,  and 
the  importance  of  providing  training  for  such  work  under  Chris- 
tian auspices.  We  believe  that  the  Christian  Associations  should 
consider,  as  one  of  their  contributions  to  the  whole  task  of  Chris- 
tian education,  the  training  of  physical  directors  and  recreation 
leaders,  for  both  Christian  and  government    schools;     and    for 

299 


30O  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

service  in  the  community,  through  the  Christian  Associations  or 
other  agencies.  We  recommend  the  vigorous  development  of  the 
work  done  in  the  Training  School  for  Physical  Directors  carried 
on  by  the  Young  Women's  Christian  Association,  and  the  exten- 
sion of  training,  as  rapidly  as  possible,  through  short  term  courses 
and  institutes. 

503.  Health  education. — We  believe  that  the  Christian  As- 
sociations should  make  large  contribution  to  the  program  of 
health  education,  sharing  in  the  planning  and  promotion  of  public 
health  campaigns,  lectures,  institutes,  exhibits,  and  printed  matter. 

III.    General  Education 

While  the  major  responsibility  for  general  education 
under  Christian  auspices  rests  with  the  schools  and  colleges  of  the 
Mission  Boards,  the  Christian  Associations  have  a  distinct  con- 
tribution to  make  in  several  fields. 

504.  Adult  education. — We  recommend  that  the  Christian 
Associations  take  a  large  share  in  the  education  of  adults  by  such 
methods  as : 

a.  Providing  continuation  schools,  such  as  night  schools, 
schools  in  business  training,  and  schools  for  the  employed. 

b.  Offering  classes  in  such  subjects  as  may  be  needed 
by  men  and  women  who  find  it  impossible  to  attend  school,  but 
are  able  to  join  a  single  class.  This  type  of  work  is  especially 
needed  by  married  women. 

c.  Cooperation  in  the  education  of  adults,  and  in  the 
moulding  of  public  opinion,  by  means  of  lectures,  campaigns, 
exhibits,  and  the  like. 

d.  Cooperation  in  special  efforts  for  the  industrial  classes. 

505.  Supplementary  educational  luork. — Where  there  are 
opportunities  for  educational  work,  which  have  not  yet  been  un- 
dertaken by  other  organized  Christian  bodies,  or  by  the  govern- 
ment, the  Associations  may  well  pioneer  along  these  lines.  In 
many  cases,  such  work  will  later  be  turned  over  to  other  Christian 
agencies.     Among  the  educational  needs  which  the  Associations 


CHRISTIAN  ASSOCIATIONS  301 

might  attempt  to  meet,  supplementing  the  work  of  other  agencies, 
are: 

a.  The  offering  of  vocational  guidance  not  only  to  Asso- 
ciation members,  but  to  young  people  in  general,  especially  to  stu- 
dents in  government  schools,  students  preparing  to  study  abroad, 
and  students  returning  from  abroad. 

b.  The  planning  and  provision  of  an  educational  pro- 
gram for  unprivileged  children,  to  whom  circumstances  have  de- 
nied a  reasonable  opportunity  for  schooling. 

c.  Experimentation  and  demonstration  in  methods  for 
the  education  of  the  illiterate  masses. 

d.  The  giving  of  guidance,  direct  or  indirect,  for  the 
voluntary  leisure  time  activities  of  adolescents.  Such  work 
would  include  the  development  of  a  program  for  the  training  of 
boys  and  girls  in  Christian  citizenship ;  the  training  of  volunteer 
and  employed  leaders  for  work  among  adolescent  girls  and  boys; 
the  organization  of  such  work  on  a  community-wide  basis ;  and 
the  furthering,  among  the  boys  and  girls  of  China,  of  work  simi- 
lar to  that  done,  in  other  countries,  by  the  Boy  Scouts,  the  Girl 
Reserves  and  other  like  organizations. 

506.    A   resource  to   Christian  and  non-Christian  schools. — 

a.  Because  of  the  intensive  study  which  they  have  made 
of  problems  common  to  many  schools,  such  for  example  as  those 
related  to  religious  education  and  physical  education,  the  Asso- 
ciations can  often  be  of  service  to  the  Christian  schools  in  the 
planning  of  curriculum  courses  in  religious  education,  physical 
and  health  education,  and  other  related  subjects.  They  are  in  a 
position  to  make  a  contribution  to  the  thinking  and  the  activities 
of  Christian  educational  associations,  and  we  recommend  that 
they  be  represented  in  such  organizations  and  share  in  the  promo- 
tion of  their  activities. 

b.  Because  of  their  relation  to  both  Christian  and  non- 
Christian  schools,  the  Associations  can  be  of  special  help  in  the 
promotion  of  relationships  between  the  two  groups  of  schools. 
They  are  the  natural  agencies  for  the  promotion  of  interschool 
activities  such  as  athletic  meets,  debates,  conferences,  and  the  like. 


302  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

IV.    Religious  Education 

507.  Work  among  the  students  of  non-Christian  schools. — 
When  the  missions  invited  the  Christian  Associations  to  cooper- 
ate with  them  in  the  Christian  enterprise  in  China,  it  was  stated 
that  one  of  the  fields  of  work  for  which  they  were  most  desired 
was  that  among  the  students  of  non-Christian  schools.  We 
heartily  endorse  the  recommendation  of  the  Christian  Conference 
of  191 3,  urging  that  the  Associations  consider  the  promotion  of 
religious  work  for  the  students  of  non-Christian  schools  to  be 
one  of  their  chief  responsibilities. 

One  of  the  most  effective  means  of  exerting  Christian 
influence  upon  the  students  in  non-Christian  schools  is  through 
Christian  hostels.  The  provision  of  safe,  comfortable,  and  happy 
living  conditions  for  students  who  are  away  from  home,  and 
are  not  provided  for  by  school  dormitories,  meets  a  real  and 
serious  need  of  many  men  and  women  in  private  and  govern- 
ment schools,  and  offers  an  opportunity  for  Christian  influence 
comparable  only  to  that  of  the  Christian  boarding  school.  We 
recommend  that  both  Christian  Associations  count,  among  their 
responsibilities,  the  provision  of  such  hostels  for  the  students  of 
non-Christian  schools,  as  well  as  for  other  Chinese  men  and 
women  away  from  home. 

508.  Christian  Associations  in  Christian  schools. — The  Asso- 
ciations should  continue,  as  an  important  part  of  their  share  in 
the  task  of  religious  education,  their  cooperation  with  Christian 
schools  in  the  work  of  local  student  Christian  Associations;  in 
the  development,  through  these  Associations,  of  a  national  stu- 
dent Christian  movement,  and  in  the  relating  of  this  to  the 
World's  Student  Christian  Federation. 

509.  Students  conferences. — The  student  conferences,  held 
under  the  auspices  of  the  Christian  Associations  in  other  lands, 
have  proved  of  such  immeasurable  service,  that  their  value  in 
China  is  beyond  question.  We  heartily  recommend  that  the  two 
Christian  Associations  continue  the  holding  of  conferences  for 
the  students  of  both  Christian  and  non-Christian  schools. 


CHRISTIAN  ASSOCIATIONS  303 

510.  Production  of  literature. — The  Associations  have  a  val- 
uable contribution  to  make  to  the  task  of  rehgious  education  in 
China,  by  the  production  of  text  books,  outhne  studies,  periodicals 
and  other  literature.  The  needs  of  all  groups  to  which  the  Asso- 
ciations seek  to  minister  should  be  borne  in  mind  in  the  produc- 
tion of  this  hterature. 


CHAPTER    XVI 

PHYSICAL  AND  HEALTH   EDUCATION 

511.  The  health  of  students  in  Christian  schools. — The  Com- 
mission has  been  painfully  impressed  by  the  large  proportion 
of  graduates  and  former  students  of  Christian  schools  who  have 
died  soon  after  completing  their  education.  Years  have  been 
given  to  preparing  them  for  service  among  their  people,  but  their 
work  has  been  little  more  than  begun  before  they  have  had  to 
lay  it  down.  Many  others  are  doing  their  work  under  the  handi- 
cap of  frequent  illness  and  lack  of  vitality.  In  too  many  cases 
this  is  due,  in  part  at  least,  to  the  lack  of  proper  attention  to  the 
health  of  the  students  on  the  part  of  school  authorities.  We 
would  urge  that  every  Christian  school  consider  it  of  funda- 
mental importance  to  guard  the  health  of  its  students  in  every 
way  possible,  to  instruct  them  in  the  laws  of  health,  and  to  de- 
velop in  them  the  habits  which  will  make  for  physical  efficiency. 

Every  student  should  be  given  a  physical  examination 
upon  entering  school,  and  special  treatment,  diet,  and  exercises 
should  be  provided  for  those  who  need  them.  Every  student 
should  also  receive  at  least  one  physical  examination  a  year  dur- 
ing his  stay  in  school. 

Careful  attention  should  be  given  by  every  school  to 
such  matters  as  the  ventilation  of  class  and  sleeping  rooms,  ade- 
quate cubic  capacity  of  dormitories,  the  lighting  of  study  rooms,  the 
protection  of  students  from  cold  and  dampness,  and  the  provision 
of  correct  diet  and  pure  water.  It  is  scarcely  possible  to  over- 
emphasize the  contriljution  to  good  health  made  by  screens,  or 
similar  protection  against  flies  and  mosquitoes,  sanitary  toilets, 

304 


PHYSICAL  AND  HEALTH  EDUCATION  305 

clean,  hard  floors,  dry  roads  and  paths,  and  the  healthfulness  of 
the  school  environs  in  general.  The  Council  on  Health  Educa- 
tion, with  headquarters  at  Shanghai,  is  equipped  to  give  expert 
advice  on  all  such  matters  as  these,  and  should  be  a  valuable  re- 
source to  all  schools. 

Too  great  emphasis  can  scarcely  be  laid  upon  the  im- 
portance of  constant  attention  to  the  health  of  each  student,  car- 
ing for  minor  ailments  before  they  become  serious,  giving  vac- 
cination and  inoculation  when  needed,  isolating  those  sufifering 
from  infectious  or  contagious  diseases,  and  discovering  such  ob- 
stacles to  health  as  adenoids,  diseased  tonsils,  and  the  like.  It  is 
imperative  that  a  physician  be  quickly  available  for  every  school ; 
and  large  schools  should  have  a  resident  nurse,  who  is  responsible 
not  only  for  caring  for  the  sick  but  also  for  discovering  and  re- 
porting cases  of  illness.  Provision  should  be  made  for  separating 
those  who  are  ill  from  other  students,  either  in  a  separate  build- 
ing or  in  separate,  quiet  rooms. 

512.  Health  education. — The  curriculum  of  every  Christian 
school  should  provide  a  strong  program  of  health  education.  This 
should  include  study  of  such  subjects  as  personal  and  public 
hygiene,  health  habits,  perils  to  health,  common  diseases,  and 
their  treatment,  first  aid,  the  principles  of  sanitation,  and  a  cer- 
tain amount  of  sex  hygiene.  See  Chapter  on  Secondary  Edu- 
cation. Instruction  along  these  lines  should  be  placed  early  in  the 
course,  and  every  student  be  required  to  take  it,  however  short 
his  stay  in  the  school.  It  is  our  judgment  that  such  work  should, 
if  possible,  be  given  in  connection  with  the  work  of  the  depart- 
ment of  physical  education. 

The  missionary  physician  should  consider  it  one  of  his 
important  responsibilities  and  privileges  to  cooperate  with  the 
schools  in  planning  and  carrying  out  a  strong  program  of  health 
education.  The  Council  on  Health  Education  will  also  be  a  most 
valuable  adviser,  and  should  be  looked  to  for  suggestions  in  re- 
gard to  courses,  text  books,  and  the  like. 

Every  student  in  a  Christian  school  should  be  prepared 
to  give  the  most  effective  possible  service  in  the  community  to 


3o6  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

which  he  goes  upon  leaving  school.  In  view  of  the  almost  uni- 
versal ignorance  in  China  regarding  even  the  simplest  laws  of  sani- 
tation, hygiene  and  health,  every  Christian  school  should  plan 
definitely  to  train  its  students  to  give  education  along  these  lines. 
Some  schools  are  teaching  students  to  make  simple  but- vivid  health 
posters  and  charts,  to  prepare  easily  understood  speeches  on 
health  subjects,  and  to  talk  with  individuals  on  such  subjects  as 
the  dangers  of  flies,  the  value  of  fresh  air,  and  the  care  of  chil- 
dren. We  recommend  that  this  be  a  part  of  the  preparation  for 
life  of  every  student  in  China.  Christian  schools  should  assuredly 
cooperate  in  all  public  health  campaigns;  and,  when  practicable, 
should  be  centers  of  health  education  for  the  community  as  well 
as  for  their  students. 

513.  Physical  education  and  recreation. — The  importance  to 
health  of  physical  education,  recreation,  and  out-door  life  is  too 
well  known  to  need  argument.  Their  importance  from  the  point 
of  view  of  the  development  of  character  may,  perhaps,  be  less 
generally  recognized,  but  is  no  less  great.  They  are,  moreover, 
among  the  most  effective  means  of  promoting  a  natural  and 
friendly  relationship  between  students  and  faculty  members,  and 
also  furnish  a  natural  point  of  contact  between  the  students  of 
different  schools.  Athletic  contests  and  meets  have  proved  among 
the  most  successful  means  of  bringing  together  the  student  bodies 
of  Christian  and  government  schools.  In  view  of  all  these  things 
we  believe  that  every  school  should  include,  among  its  faculty 
members,  a  physical  director  of  thorough  training  and  high  char- 
acter. It  is  preferable  to  have  this  work  done  by  Chinese,  and  we 
urge  that  the  Christian  schools  for  girls  avail  themselves  of  the 
excellent  work  done  in  the  training  of  Chinese  young  women  for 
these  positions  by  the  Young  Women's  Christian  Association. 

514.  Christian  leadership  in  physical  and  health  education. — 
The  Christian  forces  in  China,  especially  the  Young  Men's  and 
Young  Women's  Christian  Associations,  have  thus  far  led  in  the 
promotion  of  physical  and  health  education,  recreation  and  ath- 
letics. They  have  organized  contests  and  meets,  have  set  high 
standards,  and  have  done  much  for  the  promotion  of  interschool 


PHYSICAL  AND  HEALTH  EDUCATION  307 

and  interracial  relationships.     Referring  to  this,  one  who  is  in 
close  touch  with  the  situation  writes : 


"Such  a  result  calls  for  more  than  casual  thought,  especially 
when  upon  further  investigation  it  is  ascertained  that  this  position  of 
Christian  leadership  is  seriously  threatened.  One  finds,  for  instance,  that 
(i)  taking  the  schools  of  China  as  a  whole,  the  non-Christian  schools 
(government)  are  giving  more  attention  to  this  work  than  the  Christian 
schools,  not  that  the  mission  schools  are  doing  less  than  formerly,  but 
that  the  government  schools  have  come  on  so  fast  that  they  have  passed 
the  mission  schools  in  their  attention  to  this  part  of  their  educational 
program.  (2)  The  percentage  of  outstanding  Chinese  athletes  is  increas- 
ingly non-Christian.  China's  ideal  of  physical  man  is  changing  from  that 
of  the  Confucian  scholar  to  the  athletic  hero,  and  it  is  very  important  that 
that  hero  be  a  Christian  athlete,  with  those  rugged  traits  of  character  that 
command  attention,  win  approval,  and  demand  emulation.  Hence,  it 
behooves  the  Christian  forces  in  China  to  produce  this  type  of  hero. 
(3)  But  perhaps  the  most  serious  aspect  of  the  situation  is  that  the 
Christian  forces  in  China  are  (with  one  exception,  the  Young  Women's 
Christian  Association)  failing  to  produce  the  well-trained  Chinese  leader- 
ship that  this  movement  demands.  Spasmodic  attempts  at  training  have 
from  time  to  time  been  made,  both  with  short  term  courses,  and  once 
with  a  full  two  years'  course,  but  the  former  have  certainly  been  inade- 
quate, while  the  latter  has  lapsed,  for  the  past  two  years,  with  apparent 
small  chance  of  reopening  in  the  immediate  future.  Hence,  we  find  our- 
selves in  the  following  situation,  that,  of  the  dozen  or  more  physical 
training  institutions  in  China,  that  of  the  Young  Women's  Christian 
Association  is  the  only  one  conducted  by  a  Christian  organization." 

In  order  to  supply  the  demand  for  directors  of  physical 
training  and  health  education  in  Christian  schools;  to  take  ad- 
vantage of  the  great  opportunity  for  Christian  service  and  influ- 
ence, which  lies  in  the  same  demand  in  government  schools ;  and 
to  maintain  in  some  degree  the  leadership  in  such  matters,  the 
Christian  forces  must  have  schools  of  good  capacity  and  excellent 
staff  for  the  training  of  these  directors. 

The  Commission  recommends  that  the  missions  consider 
this  type  of  education  to  be  one  of  the  special  fields  of  the  Young 
Women's  Christian  Association  and  the  Young  Men's  Christian 
Association,  and  hopes  that  these  organizations  will  accept  this 


3o8  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

task  as  one  part  of  their  share  in  the  whole  Christian  educational 
enterprise.  It  is  hoped  that  the  excellent  work  of  the  Young 
Women's  Christian  Association  already  accomplished  along  this 
line  will  be  continued  and  expanded,  and  that  the  Young  Men's 
Christian  Association  will  undertake  a  school  of  similar  grade  and 
character  for  men.  A  course  of  two  years  above  a  good  middle 
school  course  should  be  sufficient,  but  students  of  more  than  that 
preparation  ought  to  be  especially  welcomed. 

If  there  are  schools  which  are  quite  unable  to  employ 
a  special  physical  and  health  education  director,  some  of  the 
teachers  of  other  subjects  should  receive  special  instruction  along 
these  lines.  This  can  be  accomplished  at  small  expense  by  sum- 
mer courses  offered  at  several  centers.  The  Christian  educational 
forces  should  feel  the  burden  of  this,  but  the  Young  Men's  Chris- 
tian Association  and  the  Young  Women's  Christian  Association 
should  take  the  leadership  in  promoting  and  organizing  such 
courses.  This  should  be  done  as  early  as  possible.  The  Christian 
Associations  should  be  able  not  only  to  count  upon  the  support 
of  all  the  Christian  schools  and  colleges  in  the  area  served  by 
these  courses,  but  should  also  look  to  them  for  cooperation  in  the 
furnishing  of  teachers  and  equipment. 


CHAPTER    XVII 
SCHOOLS  FOR  THE  PHYSICALLY  DEFECTIVE 

515.  Recognition  is  given,  in  other  parts  of  this  Report,  to 
the  existence  of  a  place  in  the  total  Christian  effort  for  activities 
which  originate  from  a  desire  to  help  those  in  need,  without 
thought  of  any  direct  benefit  to  the  Christian  community.  In 
the  field  of  education  Christian  philanthropy  in  China  has  mainly 
expressed  itself  in  the  form  of  medical  schools,  orphanages,  and 
schools  for  the  blind,  and  for  deaf  mutes. 

516.  Orphanages. — The  personal  investigations  of  the  Com- 
mission did  not  include  many  orphanages,  and  no  adequate  survey 
of  the  subject  has  been  found.  The  statistics  of  the  China  Con- 
tinuation Committee  for  1920  report  twenty-five  institutions  with 
1733  children.  Probably  most  of  these  children  are  from  out- 
side the  Christian  community,  for  orphaned  Christian  children  are 
now  usually  adopted  by  other  families  or  placed  in  Christian 
boarding  schools.  The  Roman  Catholic  Church  puts  much  of  its 
educational  effort  into  the  maintenance  of  its  orphanages,  which 
care  for  nearly  20,000  children.  The  needs  of  orphans  should 
make  a  strong  appeal  to  Chinese  sympathy,  and  the  larger  exten- 
sion of  this  work  should  be  left  to  the  initiative  of  the  Christian 
community,  with  such  sympathetic  assistance  as  can  be  secured 
from  other  Chinese  sources  or  from  abroad. 

517.  Schools  for  the  blind. — The  case  of  the  blind  in  China 
has  been  a  pitiable  one.  Beggary  and  shame  have  been  their  lot. 
No  more  Christlike  work  has  been  done  for  Chinese  society 
than  the  establishment  of  a  small  number  of  schools  where  blind 
children  have  been  given  a  safe  home,  and  a  useful  education. 
The  Survey  volume  reports  twenty-nine  schools  with  784  stu- 
dents, of  whom  257  are  male  and  527  female.    Of  the  121  grad- 

309 


310  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

uates  reported,  eighty-seven  are  fully  self-supporting,  and  nine- 
teen partially  self-supporting. 

In  view  of  the  estimate  of  one  million  blind  in  China, 
it  is  apparent  that  any  adequate  provision  for  their  education  must 
be  undertaken  by  the  government.  On  the  other  hand  the  Chris- 
tian forces  should  continue  to  maintain  such  schools.  The  need 
is  so  vast,  and  the  suffering  so  great,  that  Christian  education 
cannot  be  content  to  have  no  share  in  relieving  them.  Further- 
more, Christian  schools  for  the  blind  may  do  much  to  forv^ard  the 
ultimate  development  of  a  national  program  of  education  for  the 
blind.  Their  very  existence  stimulates  the  establishment  of  similar 
private  and  government  schools.  Moreover,  the  Christian  schools 
may  make  a  valuable  contribution  to  such  schools  by  training 
teachers  in  a  special  normal  school  for  the  blind,  working  out 
courses  of  study,  especially  along  industrial  lines,  and  providing 
more  literature  in  the  Union  Braille  already  adopted  by  the  Bible 
Societies.  A  full  treatment  of  this  subject  is  found  in  the  Survey 
Volume  of  the  Continuation  Committee  (pp.  365-367).  The  sup- 
port and  conduct  of  these  schools  should,  where  possible,  be  by  the 
Chinese  Christian  community. 

518.  Schools  for  deaf  mutes. — The  Commission  knows  of  but 
five  schools  where  training  is  given  to  deaf  mutes.  This  work, 
while  requiring  its  own  methods  and  special  classes,  does  not  neces- 
sarily involve  separate  institutions.  The  experiment  has  been  tried 
of  putting  deaf  girls  into  a  regular  boarding  school  where  they 
share  dormitory  life,  recreation,  and  manual  training  with  the' 
other  students.  Class  work  is,  however,  conducted  in  a  separate 
room  by  a  specially  trained  teacher.  Since  the  aim  of  the  training 
given  deaf  mutes  is  to  teach  them  to  speak,  and  to  read  the  lips 
of  others,  and  thus  to  fit  them  for  life  in  regular  occupations,  this 
method  would  seem  the  best  possible.  There  is  a  place,  however, 
for  at  least  one  school  where  the  best  methods  of  teaching  the  deaf 
are  studied,  and  the  results  of  that  study  made  available  for  all 
who  are  sharing  in  such  work.  The  Mills  Memorial  School  at 
Chefoo  is  already,  in  a  measure,  performing  this  function  and  has 
sent  out  teachers  to  other  schools. 


CHAPTER   XVIII 
SCHOOLS  FOR  FOREIGN  CHILDREN 

519.  The  missionaries  in  China  are  much  more  fortunate 
in  one  respect  than  their  fellow  workers  in  many  other  lands. 
They  are  not  compelled  by  reason  of  climatic  conditions  to  send 
their  children  home  at  an  early  age,  but  are  able  to  have  them 
under  their  own  care  and  supervision  for  a  much  longer  period. 

This  does  not  mean  that  there  are  no  problems  connected 
with  the  residence  of  the  missionary  children  in  China,  There 
is  the  ever  present  problem  of  their  education.  In  most  missions 
this  means  that  at  least  one  and  frequently  several  of  the  mothers 
of  the  mission  must  devote  a  considerable  portion  of  their  time 
for  a  number  of  years  to  the  education  of  the  children  of  their 
own  and  other  homes.  That  this  is  not  entirely  an  evil  is  clearly 
evident.  It  means  of  course  that  the  mission  is  for  a  time  deprived 
of  their  service  in  direct  missionary  work.  But  the  compensations 
cannot  be  overlooked.  What  more  valuable  service  could  any 
woman  render  the  missionary  cause  than  the  nurture  of  these 
children  of  the  mission?  She  has  no  small  influence  in  deter- 
mining not  only  the  future  character  of  the  children  under  her 
supervision,  but  also  their  future  attitude  toward  the  service  to 
which  their  parents  have  given  their  lives.  It  has  been  abun- 
dantly proved  that  the  best  missionaries  are  the  children  of  mis- 
sionaries. The  women  may  begrudge  the  time  which  they  are 
obliged  to  give  to  this  educational  process  but  it  is  doubtful 
whether  they  could  render  any  greater  service  to  the  cause  of 
missions. 

520.  There  are  limitations  to  this  process.    The  time  comes 

311 


312  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

when  the  child  must  have  an  education  of  a  different  type  from 
that  which  can  be  given  in  most  mission  stations.  This  time  dates 
at  least  from  the  period  when  the  child  is  ready  for  high  school, 
and  frequently  from  a  much  earlier  day.  This  higher  education 
can  seldom  be  given  in  the  mission  compound  but  must  be  se- 
cured in  a  school  with  proper  equipment  and  trained  teachers. 
This  makes  necessary  the  establishment  of  schools  for  foreign  chil- 
dren.   How  many  of  these  schools  should  there  be  in  China? 

Many  parents  would  doubtless  be  glad  if  there  could  be 
a  school  at  each  mission  station  but  that  is,  of  course,  impossible. 
In  any  city  where  there  is  a  considerable  number  of  foreign  chil- 
dren it  is  a  comparatively  simple  and  inexpensive  matter  to  main- 
tain a  grade  school  for  day  pupils.  It  is  when  a  high  school  educa- 
tion must  be  provided,  or  when  boarding  pupils  must  be  cared  for, 
that  the  process  becomes  complicated  and  expensive.  The  num- 
ber of  schools  of  this  type  must  be  limited. 

521.  The  problem  of  union  schools  in  which  the  missions 
might  unite,  is  complicated  by  the  different  standards  for  admis- 
sion to  English  and  American  universities.  In  the  grades  there 
is  no  serious  difficulty  in  providing  for  British  and  American 
children  together,  but  when  it  comes  to  the  higher  work  it  has, 
in  many  cases,  been  found  advisable  to  maintain  separate  schools 
for  the  two  nationalities.  In  some  schools,  on  the  other  hand, 
the  difficulties  have  been  successfully  met.  This  problem  ought 
to  be  studied  with  a  view  to  its  ultimate  solution. 

522.  At  present  there  are  boarding  schools  of  the  higher 
grade  for  English  children  at  Weihaiwei,  Shanghai,  Hongkong, 
and  Chefoo.  The  school  at  Chefoo  provides  for  all  the  children 
of  the  China  Inland  Mission  from  all  parts  of  the  country.  These 
four  schools  are  probably  all  that  ought  to  be  maintained  in  view 
of  the  fact  that  English  missionaries  prefer  to  send  their  children 
home,  as  a  rule,  at  a  somewhat  early  age. 

523.  For  the  American  children  there  are  two  schools  at 
Peking,  one  at  Shanghai,  and  one  at  Kuling.  Canton  Christian 
College  is  maintaining  a  school  for  all  western  children,  and  the 
Canadian   Methodist  Mission  is  conducting  a  similar   school  at 


SCHOOLS  FOR  FOREIGN  CHILDREN  313 

Chengtu.  There  has  been  a  demand  that  the  number  of  these 
schools  should  be  considerably  increased.  We  are  convinced  how- 
ever, that  this  number  is  quite  as  large  as  the  missions  and  Boards 
are  justified  in  conducting.  To  run  a  standard  school  such  as  the 
children  of  the  missionaries  are  entitled  to  have  is  expensive.  It 
is  difficult  both  to  finance  and  to  stafif  it  properly. 

It  is  unfortunate  that  it  seems  to  be  necessary  to  maintain 
two  schools  at  Peking.  One  is  located  in  the  city  and  is  patron- 
ized by  missionaries  and  others  who  prefer  to  have  their  children 
in  the  home  during  this  period.  The  other  school  is  located  at 
Tunghsien,  some  thirteen  miles  from  the  city  in  the  compound 
of  the  American  Board.  This  is  largely  a  boarding  school  and 
serves  the  missionaries  who  have  a  strong  and  justifiable  preference 
that,  during  this  period,  their  children  should  not  live  in  the  heart 
of  a  city  like  Peking.  This  is  a  school  of  high  standard  and  is 
serving  its  purpose  well.  Varying  conditions  apparently  make 
the  maintenance  of  both  schools  necessary,  though  in  the  interests 
of  economy  and  efficiency  it  would  be  much  better  if  they  could 
be  united. 

524.  At  Kuling  there  is  a  school  which  serves  the  missions 
of  Central  China.  This  is  an  ideal  location.  The  climate  is  excel- 
lent, the  surroundings  are  good,  and  Kuling  has  the  distinct  ad- 
vantage of  being  the  summer  home  of  large  numbers  of  mission- 
aries, who  are  able  to  visualize  for  the  other  months  of  the  year 
the  life  and  activities  of  their  children.  This  is  an  item  of  no 
small  value  in  the  life  of  the  missionary.  The  school  has  been 
developed  and  is  now  largely  supported  by  the  American  Epis- 
copal and  the  Northern  Presbyterian  Boards,  Since  it  serves  a 
much  wider  constituency  than  the  children  of  the  missionaries 
of  these  two  Boards,  it  should  have  the  support  of  other  Boards 
at  work  in  Central  China. 

525.  The  school  for  West  China  is  located  at  Chengtu,  the 
center  of  the  work  of  that  section.  The  lack  of  steam  communica- 
tion means  long  travelling  for  many  children  but  much  less  than 
if  they  had  to  go  down  to  Central  China.  This  school  was  estab- 
lished, and  is  maintained,  by  the  Canadian  Methodists.    They  have 


314  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

rendered  a  great  service  to  their  fellow  missionaries.  The  mis- 
sions are  growing  so  large  however,  that  the  question  must  soon  be 
faced  whether  new  schools  shall  be  opened  by  other  missions  in 
West  China,  or  whether  the  missions  shall  unite  in  enlarging  and 
supporting  this  present  school.  There  may  be  room  for  difference 
of  opinion  on  this  point,  but  there  is  every  advantage  in  union,  in 
the  high  school  at  least.  One  large  school,  well  housed  and  prop- 
erly staffed,  will  be  vastly  better  than  several  schools  of  necessarily 
lower  standards.  We  recommend  that  the  other  Boards  working 
in  the  province  of  Szechwan,  join  forces  with  the  Canadian  Board 
in  strengthening  this  school.  Until  railways  link  up  Yunnan  and 
Kweichow  with  Szechwan,  this  school  cannot  serve  these  provinces, 
and  children  must  be  taught  locally  or  sent  to  the  coast. 

526.  The  largest  school  in  China  is  located  at  Shanghai. 
This  school  has  a  strong  staff,  and  is  under  competent  management. 
At  present  it  is  poorly  housed,  but  a  splendid  tract  of  land  has 
been  secured,  the  money  raised,  and  a  fit^e  set  of  buildings  is 
about  to  be  erected.  When  this  plant  is  ready  this  will  be  a  most 
attractive  school  for  the  children  of  missionaries.  The  new  loca- 
tion is  far  enough  away  from  the  heart  of  the  city  to  assure  to 
children  the  protection  from  the  temptations  of  a  large  city,  which 
has  been  one  of  the  objections  of  many  parents  to  the  school  as  at 
present  housed. 

This  is  a  school  not  only  for  the  children  of  mission- 
aries but  for  the  children  of  other  Americans  resident  in  East 
China.  This  is  a  distinct  advantage,  as  the  larger  patronage  as- 
sures a  better  school.  This  school  will  be  largely  self-supporting, 
but  will  continue  to  need  some  help  from  the  Boards.  The  pres- 
ent policy  of  two  rates  of  tuition,  one  for  the  children  of  business 
men  and  another  for  the  children  of  missionaries,  is  a  most  un- 
fortunate one  and  ought  not  to  be  continued.  It  puts  the  children 
of  the  missionary  at  a  distinct  disadvantage.  In  order  that  this 
inequality  may  be  obviated,  an  adequate  endowment  should  be 
secured,  or  the  Mission  Boards  should  provide  scholarships  which 
may  be  applicable  to  the  charges  of  the  missionary  children. 

527.  Wherever  possible  the  missionaries  and  other  resident 


SCHOOLS  FOR  FOREIGN  CHILDREN  315 

Americans  should  cooperate  in  the  maintenance  of  one  school. 
This  works  for  democracy  among  the  children,  for  a  higher  stan- 
dard of  school,  and  helps  to  bridge  that  most  unfortunate  gap 
which  frequently  exists  between  the  missionaries  and  other  resi- 
dent Americans. 

We  urge  that  the  Boards  continue,  or  increase  their  assist- 
ance in  every  case  in  which  this  is  necessary  in  order  to  main- 
tain a  school  of  the  highest  standard,  that  these  children  of  the 
missions  may  be  the  better  trained  and  the  better  prepared  to  re- 
turn without  delay  to  the  fields  of  their  parents. 


PART  IV 

SPECIAL  PROBLEMS  OF  EDUCATION 

CHAPTER    I 

THE  PREPARATION  OF  THE  MISSIONARY  FOR 
EDUCATIONAL  WORK 

I.    The  Present  Situation 

528.  The  China  National  Conference  of  Missionaries  and 
Chinese  Christian  Leaders,  held  in  1913,  declared:  "We  firmly 
believe  that  evangelistic  and  educational  work  are  both  included 
in  our  Great  Commission,  and  that  the  success  of  evangelistic 
work  largely  depends  on  the  efficiency  of  educational  work." 

l(  this  conviction  is  well  founded,  and  we  believe  that 
it  is,  there  are  few  subjects  of  more  importance  than  the  prepara- 
tion of  the  missionaries  to  whom  the  task  of  Christian  education 
in  China  is  entrusted.  The  efficiency  of  educational  work  depends 
to  a  large  degree  upon  the  efficiency  of  the  educational  workers. 
Education  is  a  science  and  only  those  who  have  mastered  it  are 
able  through  it  to  render  the  largest  service. 

529.  It  is  only  recently,  however,  that  the  Boards  have  begun 
to  appreciate  the  importance  of  requiring  any  special  training  on 
the  part  of  those  who  are  to  be  entrusted  with  their  largest  enter- 
prises in  the  Orient.  Almost  all  male  candidates  are  put  through 
the  same  course  of  theological  education  and  sent  out  to  conduct 
great  educational  institutions.  The  Edinburgh  Missionary  Confer- 
ence in  1910  made  an  emphatic  pronouncement  upon  this  subject: 
"In  view  of  the  necessity  of  maintaining  a  high  standard  of  effi- 

317 


3i8  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

ciency  in  all  mission  educational  work  and  of  the  help  needed  by 
native  teachers  and  students  in  the  art  of  teaching,  the  Commission 
would  urge  upon  all  home  Boards  and  Societies  the  importance  of 
a  sound  educational  training  for  all  missionaries  sent  out  from 
home  lands  to  supervise  or  take  part  in  such  work." 

The  situation  has  changed  somewhat  for  the  better  since 
the  Edinburgh  Conference.  Nevertheless  we  have  found,  as  did 
the  recent  Commission  to  India,  that  nearly  all  educational  work 
is  still  entrusted  to  men  who  have  had  only  a  theological  educa- 
tion. The  Commission  visited  one  large  mission  which  is  con- 
ducting over  one  hundred  and  fifty  schools,  primary,  secondary, 
theological,  and  found  only  one  man  who  had  had  any  training  in 
the  science  of  education.  He  has  been  on  the  field  less  than  a 
year  and  is  teaching  in  a  middle  school.  We  found  another 
man  trained  and  sent  to  the  field  as  a  teacher  of  systematic  theol- 
ogy but  placed  by  his  bishop  as  a  superintendent  of  a  system  of 
primary  schools,  a  task  for  which,  by  his  own  complaint,  he  had 
no  preparation  or  liking.  Some  Boards  have  made  much  more 
decided  progress  than  have  others.  Their  example  is  worthy  of 
imitation. 

530.  The  Boards  are  not  entirely  to  blame  in  this  matter 
for,  as  in  the  case  cited  above,  the  missions,  often  because  they 
are  hard  pressed  for  men,  transfer  men  from  tasks  for  which  they 
were  trained  to  tasks  for  which  they  have  no  preparation.  This  has 
happened  most  frequently  in  the  field  of  education. 

The  process  is  too  expensive  to  be  continued.  The 
churches  at  home  have  made  and  are  making  investments  of 
millions  of  dollars  in  the  educational  plants  and  budgets  of  China 
and  to  entrust  these  great  undertakings  to  men  utterly  unpre- 
pared for  their  task  cannot  be  regarded  as  conservation  of  men 
or  of  money,  to  say  the  least. 

531.  The  missionaries  themselves  recognize  the  seriousness 
of  the  situation  and  have  been  calling  loudly  for  men  trained  for 
definite  tasks.  They  are  asking  that  those  who  are  sent  out  as 
their  colleagues  shall  have  a  better  preparation  for  their  special 
tasks  than  they  themselves  received.     As  the  American   Board 


PREPARATION  FOR  EDUCATIONAL  WORK  319 

of  Missionary  Preparation  has  pointed  out,  "There  is  a  generally 
increasing  recognition  that,  while  there  must  be  some  all-round 
men  who  can  be  moved  about  freely,  those  who  have  had  training 
for  special  positions  are  more  needed  than  ever  before  and  should 
be  kept  in  them  as  long  as  possible." 

532.  Despite  the  slow  progress  which  government  education 
has  made  in  some  directions,  it  cannot  be  denied  that  educational 
leadership  is  passing  into  the  hands  of  the  Chinese.  The  testing 
time  for  our  schools  is  at  hand.  In  fact  it  is  already  here.  Young 
Chinese  men  and  women  are  constantly  coming  back  from  England 
and  America.  Many  of  them  have  had  the  highest  technical  train- 
ing in  education.  They  know  what  education  is  and  they  know 
how  to  apply  educational  standards  and  methods.  Many  of  them 
are  our  friends  and  will  be  sympathetic.  Others  will  be  critical. 
But,  whether  their  attitude  be  friendly  or  critical  the  testing  is 
sure  to  come.  In  fact  our  schools  are  already  in  the  crucible. 
We  can  have  little  hope  that  they  will  be  able  to  stand  the  test 
unless  they  are  directed  by  men  and  women  who  in  ability  and 
training  are  equal  to  those  who  are  in  charge  of  the  government 
schools.  For  the  sake,  therefore,  of  our  whole  work  we  should 
bring  to  China  as  our  educational  representatives  the  best  trained 
men  and  women. 


II,    Recommendations 

The  whole  subject  of  missionary  preparation  is  being 
studied  constantly  in  England  and  America  by  groups  of  men 
and  women  who  are  thoroughly  conversant  with  the  situation. 
These  Boards  of  Missionary  Preparation  have  given  special  at- 
tention to  the  training  of  the  educational  missionary.  We  do 
not  need,  therefore,  to  discuss  this  matter  at  length,  but  we  offer 
the  following  suggestions, 

533,  The  most  important  element  in  the  preparation  of  the 
educational  missionary  is  his  spiritual  equipment.  We  declare  this 
unequivocally  and  without  hesitation.  The  fact  that  he  is  to  be 
a  school  teacher  rather  than  a  preacher  does  not  in  the  slightest 


320  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

degree  lessen  the  importance  of  his  being  a  spiritually  minded  man. 
It  is  as  important  for  the  educator  as  for  the  evangelist  that  he 
have  the  mind  of  Christ  and  that  his  whole  character  reflect  the 
spirit  of  his  Great  Teacher.  He  is  to  deal  with  young  plastic 
minds,  and  unless  he  is  himself  a  true  Christian  he  will  have  little 
success  in  leading  the  children  under  his  care  into  the  tutorship 
of  Christ.     We  place  the  first  emphasis  here. 

534.  The  candidate  for  educational  service  should,  so  far  as 
possible,  be  selected  for  a  definite  piece  of  work,  that  he  may  pre- 
pare himself  adequately  for  the  task  which  he  is  to  undertake. 
The  policy  of  sending  out  a  group  of  promising  young  people, 
to  be  allocated  wherever  the  mission  may  happen  to  wish  to  place 
them  at  the  time  of  their  arrival,  is  subversive  of  the  best  inter- 
ests of  the  mission.  Such  a  policy  gives  them  no  opportunity  to 
specialize,  nor  to  bring  to  their  work  the  skill  which  it  deserves. 
We  realize  that  exigencies  are  constantly  recurring  on  the  mis- 
sion field,  but  we  believe  that  with  proper  foresight  on  the  part 
of  the  candidate  departments,  it  should  be  possible  for  most  of 
the  candidates  to  know  in  advance,  what  their  work  is  to  be  and 
to  prepare  definitely  for  that  work. 

535.  In  selecting  candidates  for  educational  work  the  Boards 
should  make  careful  investigation  of  the  candidate's  educational 
background,  including  his  own  education  and  his  experience  in 
educational  work.  The  application  blank  should  include  questions 
which  will  elicit  these  facts.  When  the  candidates  make  appli- 
cation early  in  their  education,  the  Boards  should  advise  with 
them  as  to  the  institutions  which  they  are  to  attend,  in  order  that 
they  may  be  assured  that  their  future  missionaries  will  have  a  good 
education.  It  is  not  possible  to  secure  thorough  education  in  all 
schools  and  the  Boards  have  a  responsibility  to  themselves,  to  the 
work  and  to  the  candidates,  to  see  that  they  are  trained  in  strong 
institutions. 

536.  The  qualifications  for  educational  missionaries  should 
be  passed  upon  by  a  committee  of  educational  experts.  The  ordi- 
nary Board  member  is  not  prepared  to  determine  these  questions. 
Every  Board  must  have  men  and  women  at  its  command  whose 


PREPARATION  FOR  EDUCATIONAL  WORK  321 

judgment  in  such  matters  will  be  valuable  and  decisive.  When- 
ever possible,  full  information  regarding  a  candidate  should  be 
sent  forward  to  the  field  before  his  appointment  that  the  authori- 
ties of  the  school  to  which  he  is  to  be  assigned  may  advise  upon 
his  fitness  for  the  task. 

537.  We  desire  to  lay  emphasis  upon  a  fact  of  which  the 
Boards  are  quite  as  well  aware  as  we,  yet  which  they  are  some- 
times tempted  to  forget,  namely  that  the  qualifications  for  educa- 
tional workers  in  China  must  be  quite  as  high  as  for  workers  in 
the  same  grades  at  home.  There  may  be  some  fields  where  mis- 
sionaries of  a  less  high  standard  may  still  be  able  to  render  a  most 
valuable  service.  But  this  is  not  true  in  China.  As  we  have  al- 
ready pointed  out,  the  educator  in  China  will  have  to  match  him- 
self with  minds  as  keen  and  well  trained  as  are  to  be  found  any- 
where in  the  world.  Only  the  strongest  men  and  women  will 
stand  the  test.  Moreover,  many  of  these  educational  positions, 
like  similar  positions  at  home,  must  be  filled  by  specialists  who 
have  had  adequate  experience.  Mission  Boards  do  not  always 
remember  that,  if  we  are  to  remain  in  the  field  at  all,  we  must 
give  an  education  fully  equal  to  the  best  at  home. 

538.  All  educational  candidates  should  be  graduates  of  good 
colleges,  or  at  least  of  first  class  normal  schools,  according  to  the 
type  of  work  to  which  they  are  to  be  assigned.  Missionaries  of 
less  education  cannot  stand  the  test.  It  would  be  well  if  many 
educational  missionaries  could  add  to  a  regular  college  course 
a  professional  training  in  education,  acquired  in  full  or  in  part 
before  the  first  term  of  service.  In  addition  to  this  professional 
training,  at  least  one  year  of  successful  experience  of  teaching  at 
home  would  be  a  distinct  advantage.  It  would  be  well  if  many 
of  these  candidates,  especially  the  women,  could  have  this  expe- 
rience in  boarding  schools,  as  the  institutions  to  which  they  are 
assigned  will  usually  be  of  this  type. 

539.  We  are  aware  of  the  difficulties  which  the  Boards  meet 
in  finding  young  men  and  women  who  measure  up  to  these  stan- 
dards and  ideals.  We  desire  to  suggest  that  the  Boards  might  find 
it  to  their  advantage  to  consult  frequently  the  appointment  bureaus 


322  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

of  the  good  colleges.  One  of  the  most  fruitful  fields  which  is 
seldom  searched,  is  that  of  the  junior  staff  of  the  college  faculties 
and  the  staiY  of  the  standard  high  school.  Here  are  many  promis- 
ing young  people,  who  have  already  been  tried  out,  and  who  could 
not  fail  to  respond  to  the  challenge  of  a  task  for  which  they  are 
already  prepared.  We  hope  that  more  and  more  the  Boards  will 
pursue  the  policy  of  going  after  the  men  and  women  whom  they 
want,  rather  than  simply  choosing  from  among  the  people  who 
apply.  We  believe  in  the  missionary  call,  but  many  of  our  best 
young  people  would  hear  it  if  a  specific  piece  of  work  for  which 
they  were  qualified  was  presented  to  them. 

540.  It  has  been  a  time  honored  policy  to  regard  all  appoint- 
ments to  the  mission  field  as  appointments  for  life,  but  in  recent 
years  some  of  the  Boards  have  been  sending  out  a  few  short  term 
people  to  teach  English  in  the  higher  schools.  The  success  of  this 
innovation  suggests  the  desirability  of  making  a  further  change 
in  the  policy  of  appointments. 

The  appointees  for  educational  work  may  be  divided  into 
four  possible  classes :  ( i )  There  will  be  a  demand  in  a  limited 
number  of  institutions,  principally  middle  schools,  for  young  men 
and  women,  recent  graduates  of  college,  to  come  to  China  as 
teachers  of  English  for  short  terms  of  service,  from  three  to  five 
years.  A  professional  training  will  not  be  necessary  to  success  but 
would  be  desirable.  The  contribution  of  these  people  will  not  be 
primarily  to  the  scholarship  of  the  institution,  but  in  their  contacts 
with  students  in  social,  athletic,  and  other  activities.  (2)  There 
will  be  an  increasing  demand  for  specialists  in  certain  lines,  mature 
men  and  women,  who  have  already  made  their  reputation,  who 
will  come  to  the  field  for  limited  or  extended  periods  of  service, 
to  take  charge  of  particular  pieces  of  work.  As  a  rule,  such  per- 
sons will  not  be  expected  to  acquire  the  language.  Neither  of 
these  two  groups  will  make  up  any  appreciable  percentage  of  the 
total  number  of  appointees.  The  majority  will  be  in  the  two  fol- 
lowing classes:  (3)  There  is  an  opportunity,  constantly  enlarging, 
for  young  men  and  women  who,  having  already  taken  their  pro- 
fessional   training    and    demonstrated    their    ability,    will    accept 


PREPARATION  FOR  EDUCATIONAL  WORK  323 

permanent  appointments  on  the  college  staffs  in  China.  Some  of 
these  will  have  taken  this  course  in  preparation  for  missionary 
work,  but,  as  we  have  indicated  in  the  previous  section,  many  of 
them  are  in  college  or  high  school  faculties  with  no  thought  of  mis- 
sionary service  but  capable  of  having  their  interest  aroused.  (4) 
The  largest  number  will,  however,  consist  of  young  people,  se- 
lected from  among  college  students  or  those  who  have  just  fin- 
ished their  college  courses.  It  is  concerning  these  that  we  wish 
to  suggest  a  new  policy  of  appointment.  We  recommend  that  the 
appointment  of  many  of  these  as  educational  missionaries  be  pro- 
visional for  a  period  of  four  years.  They  will  come  to  the  field 
with  the  clear  understanding  that  their  permanent  appointment  is 
conditional  upon  their  giving  sufficient  evidence  during  this  first 
period  that  they  are  qualified  for  the  special  work  for  which  they 
are  sent. 

This  would  enable  the  Boards  to  avail  themselves  of 
some  of  our  choicest  young  people  who  desire  to  enter  the  mis- 
sionary work  but  who,  because  of  their  ignorance  of  the  whole 
undertaking,  hesitate  to  volunteer  for  life  without  more  informa- 
tion. Under  this  arrangement  these  appointees  could  sail  upon 
graduation  from  college  or  after  taking  a  part  of  their  (post-) 
graduate  work,  postponing  its  completion  until  their  first  furlough. 

The  first  two  years  of  this  trial  period  would  be  given 
to  acquiring  the  language.  The  third  year  should  be  given  to 
teaching  in  some  one  of  the  stronger  institutions  under  the  personal 
supervision  of  a  thoroughly  trained  man.  The  fourth  year  could 
be  devoted  to  more  independent  work.  If,  after  a  period  of  four 
years,  the  candidate  has  proved  his  fitness  for  this  special  work,  he 
should  be  sent  home  to  complete  his  graduate  work  and  fit  himself 
for  a  life  of  service  on  the  field. 

The  adoption  of  this  policy  would  avoid  many  a  tragedy. 
It  would  demonstrate  the  ability  of  the  candidate  to  acquire  the 
language  and  would  prove  his  adaptability  to  life  in  the  Orient. 
It  would  introduce  him  to  educational  work  under  auspices  most 
hkely  to  assure  his  success. 

This  does  not  mean  that  the  Boards  would  send  out  ad- 


324  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

venturers  or  make  these  provisional  appointments  any  less  care- 
fully than  they  now  make  the  permanent  appointments.  We  be- 
lieve that  such  a  policy,  while  it  may  seem  to  be  revolutionary, 
would  add  greatly  to  the  efficiency  of  the  educational  staffs.  In 
the  early  days  there  were  many  reasons  for  the  present  policy 
which  do  not  now  obtain.  The  new  conditions  make  possible  a 
new  policy  which  the  Commission  desires  to  commend. 

541.  There  is  a  growing  tendency  among  educational,  as 
well  as  other  missionaries,  to  devote  the  furlough  periods  to 
(post-) graduate  work  in  the  best  universities.  This  is  a  ten- 
dency which  the  Boards  should  encourage  in  every  possible  way. 
It  must  not  be  forgotten  that  the  first  concern  of  the  mission- 
ary on  furlough  is  the  building  up  of  his  health  and  strength 
when  these  are  below  par.  But  this  usually  requires  only  a  short 
portion  of  the  period.  It  is  the  remainder  which  should  be  de- 
voted to  study.  Scholarships  should  be  arranged  and  extra  al- 
lowances provided  when  necessary  to  enable  the  returned  mis- 
sionary to  pursue  this  work  at  the  most  desirable  point.  The 
educational  missionary  should  be  as  free  as  possible  from  depu- 
tation or  field  work.  The  churches  ought  not  to  require  that  the 
Boards  demand  more  than  a  small  portion  of  the  valuable  time 
of  the  missionary  for  interesting  them  in  his  work.  Some  mis- 
sionaries have  a  valuable  service  to  render  in  acquainting  the 
church  at  home  with  the  situation  abroad,  but  as  a  usual  thing 
the  time  of  the  missionary  will  be  much  more  profitably  spent  in 
preparing  himself  for  a  larger  service  on  his  own  field,  than  in 
deputation  work. 

542.  There  has  been  endless  argument  on  the  question 
whether  every  missionary  should  have  a  theological  education. 
We  shall  not  attempt  to  discuss  this  question  further  than  to  say 
that  in  our  judgment  it  is  a  mistake  to  require  this  of  every  edu- 
cational missionary.  The  typical  theological  course  will  have  lit- 
tle value  in  fitting  him  for  an  educational  career.  The  candidate 
for  educational  work  ought  to  spend  his  precious  years  of  training 
in  study  that  will  prepare  him  directly  for  his  task.  On  the 
other  hand,  we  wish  to  point  out  that  every  missionary  ought  to 


PREPARATION  FOR  EDUCATIONAL  WORK  325 

have  a  knowledge  of  the  vital  elements  of  Christianity.  He  does 
not  need  to  be  a  specialist  in  Biblical  exegesis,  but  he  does  need 
to  be  thoroughly  acquainted  with  the  message  of  the  Scriptures. 
The  knowledge  which  he  acquired  in  the  conventional  Sunday- 
school  will  scarcely  stand  him  in  stead  on  the  mission  field. 

Further  than  this,  the  missionary  needs  to  be  acquainted 
with  the  philosophy  of  Christianity.  He  is  going  out  to  propa- 
gate a  faith  which  is  new  to  the  people  to  whom  he  goes.  He 
must  know  it  himself.  He  will  face  brilliant  young  people  who 
are  reading  and  thinking  on  all  the  modern  problems  of  religion, 
and  he  must  be  prepared  to  be  their  guide.  For  this  reason  we 
believe  that  it  is  to  the  distinct  advantage  of  every  educational 
missionary  to  have  one  year  of  carefully  selected  studies  that  will 
give  him  a  grip  on  these  subjects.  l(  the  work  is  properly  mapped 
out.  one  year  ought  to  suffice  to  give  him  the  background  which 
he  needs.  He  may  be  able  by  a  wise  selection  of  his  school  to 
secure  both  his  educational  training  and  such  acquaintance  with 
the  Christian  message  at  the  same  time. 

543.  A  new  policy  in  regard  to  the  appointment  of  educa- 
tional missionaries  will,  we  believe,  add  greatly  to  the  efficiency . 
of  our  union  schools  in  China.  It  is  often  necessary  now  when 
a  position  in  one  of  these  schools  becomes  vacant,  to  apply  to  the 
mission  whose  turn  it  is  to  furnish  another  teacher,  to  supply  this 
need.  The  mission  is  forced  to  select  the  man  who  is  available, 
often  without  serious  regard  to  his  fitness  for  the  task.  That  there 
are  not  more  misfits  is  high  testimony  to  the  character  of  the 
men  and  women  who  are  on  the  field.  The  union  institution 
is  still  too  frequently  forced  to  accept  the  appointee  of  the  mis- 
sion whether  he  is  qualified  or  not. 

We  believe  that  this  policy  should  give  way  to  another 
whereby  the  cooperating  missions  will  make  grants  of  money  to 
the  union  schools  which  they  are  supporting  and  leave  the  re- 
sponsibility of  selecting  the  teachers  and  determining  the  salaries 
to  the  authorities  of  the  schools.  This  will  leave  the  schools  free 
to  search  for  the  men  and  women  whom  they  need.  The  policy 
now  in  vogue  has  little  to  defend  it.     So  long,  however,  as  it 


326  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

is  continued  the  qualifications  of  the  person  needed  should  be 
clearly  stated  from  the  field  as  fixed  in  the  by-laws  of  the  institu- 
tion, and  they  should  be  kept  in  mind  by  the  appointing  powers 
at  home. 

544.  A  most  important  forward  step  has  been  taken  in  the 
preparation  of  the  educational,  as  well  as  all  other  missionaries, 
by  the  development  of  the  union  language  schools,  at  such  points 
as  Peking  and  Nanking.  The  old  style  method  of  acquiring  the 
language  by  which  each  missionary  was  assigned  to  some  Chinese 
scholar  with  whom  he  worked  continuously  for  two  years  or  more 
has  given  way  to  the  more  scientific  methods  worked  out  in  these 
language  schools.  The  gains  have  been  beyond  all  measure.  Not 
only  is  much  time  saved  for  the  young  missionary,  but  his  work 
is  done  in  the  companionship  of  a  large  group  of  others  who  are 
pursuing  the  same  task  and  in  surroundings  which  make  his  intro- 
duction to  a  foreign  land  easy  and  comfortable.  In  the  schools 
which  we  visited  we  found  the  highest  pedagogical  methods  in  use, 
and  the  classes  were  being  carried  forward  in  the  most  approved 
manner.  The  students  were  eager  and  enthusiastic  about  their 
work.  We  have  seldom  seen  class- work  of  a  higher  grade  than 
that  conducted  by  the  Chinese  head  teachers. 

Experience  has  already  demonstrated  that  these  schools 
should  not  be  limited  to  the  study  of  the  language.  This  will 
always  be  their  main  function,  but  the  curriculum  should  be  so 
extended  as  to  enable  the  young  missionary  to  become  acquainted 
with  the  history,  the  social  conditions,  the  religious  life,  and  the 
present  intellectual  tendencies  of  the  people  to  whom  he  is  to  min- 
ister. Rightly  conducted,  the  language  school  can  be  of  ines- 
timable value  in  preparing  the  missionary  for  his  task.  Such 
schools  as  these  should  have  the  hearty  and  enthusiastic  support 
of  the  Boards  at  home.  They  should  have  adequate  equipment  in 
school  buildings,  apartments  and  dormitories,  and  they  should  have 
the  best  staffs  of  Chinese  teachers  which  can  be  gathered.  They 
are  among  the  best  investments  which  the  missions  can  make. 
There  should  be  an  adequate  number  of  these  schools  to  meet  the 
demands  of  the  various  great  sections  of  China. 


PREPARATION  FOR  EDUCATIONAL  WORK  327 

545.  There  is  one  important  matter  not  directly  related  to 
the  preparation  of  the  educational  missionary  but  clearly  related 
to  his  enlistment  which  should  have  much  more  attention  by  the 
Boards.  This  is  the  provision  made  for  the  missionary  after  the 
completion  of  his  service.  If  the  efficiency  of  educational  work 
is  to  be  maintained,  there  will  be  a  limit  to  the  length  of  time 
which  the  educational  missionary  can  serve.  The  present  life 
tenure  is  not  compatible  with  the  best  results.  This  means  that 
the  Boards  must  make  adequate  provision  for  the  educational  mis- 
sionary when  his  period  of  service  terminates.  This  is  a  serious 
matter  and  ought  to  have  the  careful  attention  of  the  Boards. 
Adequate  provision  in  this  direction  would  materially  assist  the 
Boards  in  finding  the  right  candidates  for  educational  missions. 

In  setting  forth  these  suggestions  for  strengthening  our 
force  of  educational  missionaries,  the  Commission  desires  to  bear 
testimony  to  the  splendid  work  which  these  men  and  women,  many 
of  them  without  specific  training  for  their  tasks,  are  doing.  We 
have  been  constantly  impressed  by  the  value  of  their  service.  We 
make  these  suggestions  only  in  the  hope  that  greater  thought  and 
care  may  assure  an  even  higher  grade  of  work  in  the  testing  days 
of  Christian  educational  work  which  are  just  ahead  in  China. 


CHAPTER  II 

INTERNATIONAL  COOPERATION  IN  CHRISTIAN 
EDUCATION 

546.  In  Part  II.  of  this  Report  we  have  discussed  some  of 
the  general  principles  which  must  govern  the  undertaking  of  edu- 
cation under  Christian  auspices  in  a  land  like  China.  In  discussing 
the  relations  of  various  nationalities  engaged  in  this  task,  we  de- 
sire to  call  attention  to  three  principles. 

a.  The  final  goal  of  our  efifort  is  the  creation  of  a  system 
of  Christian  education  which  shall  be  under  the  control  of  the 
Christian  church  in  China,  and  genuinely  national. 

b.  All  Mission  Boards  now  maintaining  schools  in  China, 
should  make  it  perfectly  clear  that  this  is  the  ultimate  purpose  of 
their  work.  This  will  be  revealed  not  only  in  the  form  of  organ- 
ization adopted,  but  in  the  spirit  animating  the  missionaries. 

c.  It  is  essential  that  all  suspicion  be  dispelled  that  the 
mission  schools  exist  with  any  purpose  to  foster  the  commercial 
or  political  interests  of  any  particular  foreign  countries.  Nothing 
could  be  more  fatal  to  the  cause  of  Christian  education  in  China 
than  the  existence  of  such  a  suspicion.  This  point  is  of  special 
importance  now  in  view  of  the  increase  of  national  trade  rivalries 
and  of  the  tendency  to  use  education  as  a  means  of  propaganda. 

547.  The  relation  of  the  various  nationalities  in  China  to  each 
other  must  be  determined  by  the  principles  stated  above  governing 
the  relations  of  them  all  to  the  Chinese.  The  fundamental  question 
is,  what  contribution  can  each  make  to  the  unified  Chinese  educa- 
tional system  which  we  hope  to  help  to  create. 

The  process  of  coordination  will  be  slow,  and  for  some 
328 


INTERNATIONAL  COOPERATION  329 

time  to  come,  there  will  be  a  distinct  place  for  educational  insti- 
tutions, partly  financed  and  controlled  by  the  missions  of  western 
Europe  and  xA.merica,  so  long  as  these  are  considered  as  parts  of 
the  general  system  of  Christian  education  in  China,  and  are  or- 
ganized in  relation  thereto.  The  time  has  already  come  for  the 
Mission  Boards  to  give  main  consideration  to  the  relationship  of 
their  schools  in  any  particular  region  to  the  whole  scheme  of  Chris- 
tian education  in  that  region,  rather  than  to  the  relationship  of 
these  schools  to  others  which  these  missions  maintain  in  other 
regions.  This  impHes  a  considerable  re-orientation  of  policy  on 
the  part  of  many  Boards. 

These  schools  will  naturally  express  in  their  organization 
and  management  the  educational  ideals  and  methods  of  the  coun- 
tries to  which  the  missions  supporting  them  belong,  and  in  so  far 
as  these  are  contributions  to  the  general  stock  on  which  the  Chin- 
ese Christian  Church  will  ultimately  draw,  they  will  enrich  the 
content  of  the  educational  system  which  will  eventually  be  built  up. 
548.  This  principle  of  cooperation  is  applicable  to  the  rela- 
tions of  all  nationalities  conducting  mission  schools  in  China,  but 
it  is  particularly  important  at  the  present  time  to  find  the  right 
application  of  it  to  the  relationship  of  American  and  British 
schools.  The  difficulties  of  the  present  situation  must  be  frankly 
faced. 

a.  There  are  certain  marked  differences  in  educational 
methods  and  ideals.  British  teachers,  taken  as  a  whole,  attach 
great  importance  to  a  system  of  tests  and  examinations  applied 
at  each  stage  from  the  primary  school  up  to  the  university.  They 
are  willing  to  take  the  school  record  into  account,  but  are  not  dis- 
posed to  admit  any  one  to  a  higher  course,  least  of  all  to  college, 
without  tested  qualifications.  They  believe  that  a  graduation  cer- 
tificate or  degree  should  represent  a  definite  standard  of  attain- 
ment. American  teachers,  on  the  other  hand,  favor  more  elastic 
methods  of  admission  to  college  and  endorse  the  system,  quite 
foreign  to  British  ideas,  of  "accrediting"  certain  schools,  i.  e.,  of 
allowing  their  graduates  to  enter  college  without  special  exam- 
ination. 


330  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

British  teachers  again,  believe  in  the  gradual  unfolding 
of  the  content  of  different  subjects  studied  concurrently  over  a 
long  term  of  years,  whereas  many  American  schools  favor  the 
"block"  method,  i.  e.,  the  system  by  which  subjects  are  studied  more 
or  less  intensively  for  limited  periods  and  are  then  considered 
as  finished,  so  far  as  the  students  are  concerned.  There  thus  tends 
to  be  a  marked  divergence  of  view  as  to  the  character  of  the 
curriculum. 

There  are  also  considerable  differences  between  the  aver- 
age American  and  the  average  British  standpoint  in  Chinese  mis- 
sion schools  on  the  subject  of  student  management  and  control  and 
in  the  attitude  towards  games. 

The  Commission  does  not  seek  to  minimize  the  reality  of 
these  and  other  differences  between  the  two  systems  and  realizes 
that  the  success  of  many  union  enterprises  will  largely  depend  on 
the  willingness  of  each  to  learn  from  the  other  when  the  neces- 
sary adjustments  have  to  be  made.  What  is  essential  is  that  the 
distinctive  merits  of  both  systems  should  become  effective  contribu- 
tions to  the  Chinese  system  of  Christian  education:  the  British 
emphasis  on  thoroughness,  on  the  value  of  general  ideas,  and  in 
the  development  of  individual  personality;  the  American  fertility 
of  experimentation,  breadth  and  elasticity  of  treatment,  and  power 
of  group  organization. 

b.  The  differences  are  accentuated  by  the  much  greater 
financial  resources  of  the  American  mission  schools.  The  British 
schools  have  been  greatly  handicapped  by  lack  of  funds.  This 
tends  to  make  them  reluctant  to  enter  into  union  schemes,  lest  their 
contribution  should  be  altogether  submerged. 

549.  A  new  factor  has  been  recently  introduced  by  the  scheme 
of  the  British  Chambers  of  Commerce  for  subsidizing  recognized 
British  secondary  schools  in  China.  Subject  to  their  willingness 
to  comply  with  certain  regulations  as  to  their  curriculum  and  stan- 
dard, these  schools  are  to  receive  grants-in-aid,  primarily  to 
strengthen  the  British  staff  of  each  school.  It  is  further  contem- 
plated that  later  on  scholarships,  tenable  at  Hongkong  or  other 
British  universities,  will  be  established.     It  is  expressly   stated 


INTERNATIONAL  COOPERATION  33 1 

that  the  missionary  character  of  these  schools  will  remain  en- 
tirely unaffected. 

The  Commission  has  carefully  considered  the  bearing  of 
this  scheme  on  the  prospects  of  Christian  education  in  China  and 
has  tried  to  estimate  it  in  relation  to  the  principles  defined  above. 
The  conclusions  to  which  it  has  come  may  be  thus  stated : 

a.  That,  although  among  the  motives  for  the  scheme 
is  probably  a  desire  on  the  part  of  the  British  Chambers  of  Com- 
merce to  counterbalance  to  some  extent  the  considerable  influence 
which  America  is  obtaining  in  China  by  means  of  her  far-flung 
system  of  schools,  an  influence  which  inevitably  reacts  favorably 
on  her  commerce,  the  movement  indicates  a  genuine  desire  to  help 
China  by  means  of  education  and  a  strong  belief  that  Britain  has 
a  distinct  educational  contribution  to  make. 

b.  That  inasmuch  as  the  financial  aid  now  offered  can 
greatly  strengthen  the  British  schools  and  enable  them  to  make 
a  more  effective  contribution  to  the  cause  of  Christian  education  in 
China,  they  are  justified  in  accepting  it  on  the  express  understand- 
ing (i)  that  they  are  not  debarred  thereby  from  entering  into 
a  federation  scheme  with  American  schools  leading  up  to  a 
union  university;  (2)  that  they  are  left  completely  unfettered  as 
to  their  organization,  policy,  and  teaching,  both  religious  and 
secular. 

While  the  Commission  is  of  the  opinion  that  there  is 
room  at  present  for  distinctively  American  and  distinctively  Brit- 
ish types  of  education  in  China,  it  cannot  too  strongly  record  its 
conviction  that  these  must  not  be  allowed  to  harden  into  stereo- 
typed and  opposed  systems  incapable  of  assimilation,  and  that 
a  policy  should  be  formulated  by  which  they  will  be  gradually 
merged  into  a  composite  system,  neither  American  nor  British, 
but  Chinese,  which  will  incorporate  what  is  best  in  both  of  them. 
The  Commission  believes  that  this  merging  process  can  be  most 
eilsily  effected  by  the  federation  of  American  and  British  middle 
schools  within  union  university  areas,  so  that  while  the  individ- 
uality of  the  constituent  schools  is  left  intact,  there  may  be  a 
gradual  interpenetration  of  the  two  systems.    In  the  opinion  of  the 


332  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

Commission  the  federal  scheme  adopted  in  West  China  indicates 
the  best  solution  of  the  problem. 

550.  In  connection  with  the  subject  under  discussion  the 
Commission  has  inevitably  been  led  to  consider  the  relationship 
of  Hongkong  University  to  the  Christian  system  of  schools  and 
colleges.  It  fully  recognizes  the  value  of  a  university  which  offers 
a  high  type  of  western  education  to  Chinese  students  in  immediate 
proximity  to  their  own  country,  and  which  can  exercise  a  con- 
siderable educational  influence  on  China  through  its  high  stan- 
dard of  teaching  and  organization.  On  all  grounds  it  welcomes  the 
prospect  of  close  and  friendly  relations  between  this  university 
and  the  Christian  schools,  and  realizes  that  it  can  well  meet  the 
special  needs  of  many  graduates  from  these  schools  who  can  bene- 
fit from  a  distinctively  western  type  of  education.  So  conceived, 
it  is  conplementary  to,  and  not  competitive  with,  the  Christian 
colleges  of  China.  These  exist  to  discharge  functions  which 
cannot  be  adequately  performed  and  to  satisfy  needs  which 
cannot  be  adequately  met  by  any  foreign  university,  however  effi- 
cient. It  is  therefore  assumed  that  the  Christian  middle  schools, 
while  taking  full  advantage  of  the  opportunities  which  Hongkong 
offers  for  special  students,  will  regard  the  Christian  university  of 
their  own  area  as  the  normal  objective  of  their  college  preparatory 
classes  and  as  having  the  first  claim  on  their  loyalty.  The  Com- 
mission feels  assured  that  neither  the  British  missionary  societies 
nor  the  authorities  of  Hongkong  University  would  favor  any  pol- 
icy tending  to  detach  British  mission  schools  from  a  unified 
Chinese  system  of  Christian  education  and  to  draw  them  into  a 
separate  Anglo-Chinese  orbit. 


CHAPTER  III 

THE  CONSERVATION  OF  CHRISTIAN  PERSON- 
ALITIES TO  THE  CHURCH 

551.  One  of  the  most  serious  problems  now  facing  the  Chris- 
tian church  in  China  is  the  conservation  to  the  church  of  those 
members  who  have  been  won  to  Christianity  in  the  process  of 
education  or  who,  having  first  been  won,  have  afterwards  received 
an  education.  The  church  in  all  lands  suffers  to  some  extent  the 
loss  of  such  people,  but  the  matter  is,  we  are  led  to  believe,  more 
serious  in  China  than  in  most  other  countries,  both  in  the  sense  that 
it  occurs  in  a  proportionately  larger  number  of  cases,  and  in  that 
the  church  being  less  thoroughly  established  than  in  countries 
where  Christianity  is  older,  it  can  even  less  afford  to  lose  these 
potentially  more  valuable  members  of  the  community. 

There  is  no  doubt  that  a  considerable  proportion  of 
Chinese  students  returning  from  colleges  in  America  are  finally 
lost  to  the  church  in  China.  In  some  cases  this  loss  is  due  to  the 
disillusionment  of  the  Chinese  Christian  by  his  experiences  in 
America  and  by  the  contrasts  between  the  ideals  of  Christianity 
and  some  phases  of  Occidental  civilization.  An  industrial  system 
founded  on  a  fierce  competition ;  an  economic  or  political  imperial- 
ism which  does  not  hesitate  to  use  threats  of  force  to  further  its 
ambition;  a  racial  prejudice  which  looks  with  ill-concealed  arro- 
gance on  all  races  except  the  white :  these  too  conspicuous  features 
of  American  and  European  civilization  can  hardly  fail  to  shock 
the  Chinese  student  who  goes  abroad.  Doubtless  Christian  teach- 
ers in  China  might  do  more  than  they  are  now  doing  to  prepare  the 
student  departing  from  China  for  America  or  Europe  for  the  inev- 

333 


334  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

itable  shock  which  will  come  when  he  meets  the  more  glaring  faults 
of  western  civilization.  But  the  more  important  method  of  combat- 
ting the  evil,  short  of  a  more  thorough  Christianization  of  Christian 
lands,  is  a  larger  effort  on  the  part  of  the  British  and  American 
churches  to  bring  the  Chinese  students  into  contact  with  the  nobler 
aspects  of  the  life  of  their  countries. 

The  loss  is  not  confined  to  the  returned  students,  but  is, 
perhaps,  equally  serious  in  respect  to  students  educated  in  China. 
The  graduate  even  of  the  middle  school  is  disposed  to  complain 
that  he  does  not  get  much  from  the  preaching  of  the  average 
Chinese  pastor.  His  complaint  is  against  both  the  form  and  the 
content  of  the  message.  The  character  of  Jesus  almost  uniformly 
wins  both  respect  and  affection.  His  teaching  both  as  to  per- 
sonal morals  and  neighborly  human  relationships  at  once  attracts 
attention  and  easily  wins  allegiance.  The  dynamic  of  Chris- 
tianity, in  the  minds  of  the  Chinese,  seems  to  be  allegiance  to 
the  Master,  and  His  teaching  gives  power  to  overcome  the  base 
and  poor  in  one's  own  nature.  Such  allegiance  also  gives  a  moving 
incentive  to  social  service  and  to  the  humanization  of  economic 
and  political  relationships.  Unfortunately  Christianity  is  not 
always  so  presented,  and  the  church  loses  its  hold  on  many  who 
have  been  won  by  the  school. 

552.    Of  this  condition  there  are  several  recognizable  causes : 

a.  The  church  in  China  does  not  offer  a  program  of  at- 
tractive work  to  an  active  and  alert  layman  of  the  younger  gener- 
ation. The  problem  is  a  difficult  one.  The  churches  in  China  are 
now  in  the  hands  of  the  older  laymen,  so  far  as  the  laymen  exercise 
control ;  the  older  laymen  who  bore  the  burden  and  the  heat  of  the 
earlier  day,  a  day  of  no  small  hardship,  as  witness  the  Boxer  up- 
rising. The  control  is  conservative,  and  tends  to  alienate  the  active 
sympathy  of  the  young  men  educated  in  the  schools.  There  are, 
indeed,  compensatory  elements  in  the  situation.  Some  of  the 
laymen  find  outlets  for  their  Christian  interest  in  other  than 
ecclesiastical  forms  of  Christian  effort,  as  the  Young  Men's 
Christian  Association  and  other  such  institutions.  H  the  church 
is  inspiring  men  to  work  with  such  organizations  it  cannot  be  said 


CONSERVATION   OF  CHRISTIAN   PERSONALITIES        335 

to  be  failing  in  its  duty  to  the  community.  Yet  the  situation  can 
never  be  satisfactory  when  the  church  loses  to  itself  the  energy 
and  initiative  of  the  younger  and  educated  laymen  and  the  trained 
women  who  come  from  the  Christian  schools. 

b.  Still  another  cause  of  defection  is  found  in  the  lack 
of  a  Christian  public  sentiment.  The  student,  in  allying  himself 
with  a  Chinese  church,  does  not  have  any  large  support  in  com- 
munity sentiment.  It  will  not  be  wise  for  us  to  complain  that 
there  are  not  more  members  of  heroic  mould  in  the  Chinese 
churches.  The  Boxer  persecution  showed  the  existence  of  an 
astonishingly  large  proportion  of  such  heroes.  If  the  support  of 
public  sentiment  were  withdrawn  from  the  church  at  home  we 
might  be  amazed  at  the  large  number  of  members  who  would 
forthwith  fall  by  the  way.  The  situation  in  China  makes  a  strain 
upon  the  loyalty  of  church  members  of  which  we  of  the  West 
know  nothing.  So  simple  a  matter  as  a  young  man's  removal  from 
a  place  where  he  knows  the  church  members  to  one  where  he  is  a 
stranger,  may  lead  to  his  losing  his  grip  on  the  church.  Marriage, 
too,  into  a  circle  indifferent  to  Christian  interests  often  leads  to  the 
same  result.  It  hard  for  outsiders  to  realize  the  depth  of  spirit- 
ual and  moral  force  required  definitely  to  ally  one's  self  with  a 
Christian  church  in  a  non-Christian  communnity. 

c.  A  further  cause  for  loss  which  affects  both  returned 
students  and  those  who  have  received  all  their  education  in  China, 
is  the  disparity  between  salaries  paid  foreign  workers  in  China 
and  those  paid  Chinese  workers.  While  this  loss  primarily  affects 
the  staffs  of  our  Christian  schools  it  often  results  in  a  loss  to  the 
Christian  church  as  such.  It  is  just  to  say  that  when  Chinese 
raise  objection  to  this  disparity  they  sometimes  overlook  some 
important  considerations.  The  foreign  worker  is  subject  to  certain 
financial  disadvantages  in  coming  to  China  which  the  Chinese  may 
not  appreciate.  But  it  is  not  just  to  find  fault  with  the  Chinese 
worker  for  adopting  a  higher  standard  of  living  than  that  to  which 
he  was  accustomed  before  he  was  educated.  He  could  hardly 
have  been  truly  educated  without  some  such  resulting  elevation  of 
standard.     Nor  can  he  be  justly  criticized  for  accepting  a  remu- 


33fi  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

nerative  position  outside  church  institutions,  especially  when  this 
offers  not  only  larger  income,  but  excellent  opportunity  of  service 
to  his  country  and  the  church.  There  should  be  revision  of  salary 
scales  which  will  go  as  far  as  possible  toward  putting  the  remuner- 
ation of  foreign  workers  and  Chinese  workers  on  an  equitable 
basis,  due  account  being  taken  of  the  difference  in  circumstances 
and  standards  of  living. 

553.  These  conditions,  serious  as  they  are,  have  in  them  an 
element  of  encouragement.  They  are  themselves  the  result  of  a 
rising  standard  of  intelligence  in  the  church  due  partly  to  the 
education  of  the  children  of  the  church  and  partly  to  the  acqui- 
sition to  Christianity  of  large  numbers  of  young  people  during 
their  student  days.  Yet  the  conditions  call  for  serious  thought  and 
powerfully  reinforce  the  argument  presented  in  a  previous  chapter 
for  a  ministry  with  a  much  higher  standard  of  education.  Only 
by  such  a  ministry  can  the  educated  and,  therefore, '  especially 
valuable  elements  of  the  Christian  community  be  effectively  con- 
served to  the  service  of  Christianity.  Pending  the  development 
of  such  a  ministry  we  urge  the  church  everywhere  to  employ  all 
practicable  methods  for  holding  the  educated  members  in  close 
relation  to  itself.  The  mere  notification  to  a  church  that  a  member 
of  another  church  is  coming  within  the  range  of  its  ministry  would 
be  of  help.  Younger  members  of  the  church  are  most  likely  to  be 
aided  through  personal  contacts.  In  theological  and  practical 
perplexities  the  friendships  formed  within  the  Christian  group 
are  the  most  powerful  factors  in  holding  the  troubled  life  steady. 
While  we  recognize  the  prime  responsibility  of  the  church 
in  China  to  exert  its  utmost  effort  to  present  a  program  which  will 
hold  the  interest  of  its  young  people,  we  desire  to  express  to  the 
Christian  student  body  our  strong  hope  that  they  will  give  their 
fullest  allegiance  and  support  to  the  church  in  this  transition 
period.  In  all  lands  the  church  has  been  made  l)y  its  laymen 
quite  as  much  as  by  its  ministers.  If  the  church  in  China  attains 
the  strength  and  dignity  which  it  ought,  it  will  be  only  as  groups 
of  strong  men  and  women,  such  as  the  large  bodies  of  Christian 
students,  give  it  their  loyal  and  whole-hearted  support.    With  the 


CONSERVATION   OF   CHRISTIAN    PERSONALITIES        ZZ7 

students,  those  trained  both  at  home  and  abroad,  rests  largely  the 
destiny  of  the  Christian  church  in  their  land.  The  most  powerful 
factor  in  making  western  lands  as  Christian  as  they  are  has  been 
the  Christian  church.  China  needs  such  a  church  in  this  day. 
Even,  therefore,  if  the  church  of  the  present  does  not  minister  to 
them  to  the  degree  which  they  desire,  yet  for  the  sake  of  the  China 
of  to-morrow,  we  believe  that  the  Christian  students  and  those 
who  have  had  the  privileges  of  a  higher  education  should  give  to 
the  church  in  their  land  the  whole-hearted  devotion  which  it  so 
much  needs. 


CHAPTER  IV 

RESEARCH  AS  A  FACTOR  IN  EDUCATION 

554.  Meaning  and  importance. — The  connotation  of  the  word 
"research"  varies  widely.  It  is  sometimes  used  in  a  very  restricted 
and  technical  sense.  But,  as  here  employed,  it  is  taken  to  cover 
all  forms  of  investigation  which  result  in  the  widening  of  the  field 
of  knowledge  and  ideas,  whether  philosophical,  comparative,  statis- 
tical, or  experimental  in  character.  From  this  point  of  view  the 
re-interpretation  of  well-established  data,  resulting  in  a  fresh  and 
fruitful  presentation  of  subject-matter,  may  be  as  useful  as  the 
discovery  of  new  data.  Or,  again,  a  careful  translation  of  a 
valuable  foreign  book  may  represent  an  important  contribution 
to  the  knowledge  of  the  Chinese.  In  China  there  is  an  unlimited 
field  for  research  of  all  kinds  and  perhaps  nowhere  is  the  need 
for  it  more  urgent.  It  is  vital  in  order  to  illumine  the  path  which 
every  progressive  movement  ought  to  follow,  whether  it  be  scien- 
tific agriculture,  social  reconstruction,  or  the  teaching  of  special 
subjects. 

The  Christian  system  of  education  can  hope  to  undertake 
only  a  limited  amount  of  the  more  technical  and  expensive  kinds 
of  research,  but  it  is  essential  to  its  own  progress  that  it  should  be 
imbued  with  the  spirit  of  investigation  and  that  its  activities  should 
not  be  confined  to  teaching  and  administration.  This  is  especially 
true  of  the  senior  colleges,  which  will  naturally  initiate  and  direct 
the  main  lines  of  research.  It  may  be  said  that  every  teaching  de- 
partment of  a  senior  college  should  undertake  some  piece  of  inves- 
tigation, however  small,  and  that  all  members  of  the  staff  capable 
of  this  kind  of  work  should  have  the  time  and  opportunity  to 

338 


RESEARCH  AS  A  FACTOR  339 

undertake  it.  Some  at  least  of  the  more  promising  students  in 
these  departments  should  be  trained  to  undertake  independent 
work  and  encouraged  in  every  possible  way  to  follow  it  up  after 
graduation.  Few  needs  have  a  higher  claim  on  whatever  new 
funds  may  become  available  for  the  cause  of  Christian  education 
in  China  than  the  institution  of  (post-) graduate  fellowships.  Some 
of  these  should  be  tenable  abroad,  but  China  itself  should  be 
increasingly  regarded  as  the  main  field  for  most  kinds  of  (post-) 
graduate  research. 

In  coming  years  an  increasing  number  of  missionary 
educators  should  do  the  research  work  for  their  higher  degrees 
in  China  rather  than  in  America  or  Europe.  The  provision  of 
facilities  for  this  purpose  is  certain  in  the  end  to  prove  a  good 
investment  for  the  entire  educational  system,  since  all  experience 
shows  that  research  tends  in  the  long  run  to  pay  for  itself. 

555.  Objectives. — It  is  hardly  open  to  question  that  in  an 
avowedly  Christian  system  of  education  those  subjects  which  have 
the  most  direct  bearing  on  the  working  out  and  application  of  the 
Christian  message  should  have  the  first  claim  on  whatever  re- 
sources may  be  available  for  equipping  high  grade  institutions 
with  special  research  funds.  On  this  principle  the  Commission  is 
of  the  opinion  that  provision  should  be  made  for  research  in 
the  following  subjects:  religion,  education,  medicine,  the  social 
sciences  and  agriculture.  In  the  case  of  two  of  these,  education 
and  the  social  sciences,  no  such  provision  has  yet  been  made,  and 
the  Commission  attaches  great  importance  to  its  recommendation 
for  the  establishment  as  early  as  practicable  of  an  Institute  of 
Educational  Research  and  an  Institute  of  Economic  and  Social 
Research,  Concentration  on  the  highest  type  of  theological  studies, 
which  is  recommended  elsewhere,  should  facilitate  research  in 
theology  and  comparative  religions. 

The  foregoing  statement  of  policy  does  not  imply  that 
there  is  no  place  within  the  Christian  system  of  education  for  the 
endowment  of  research  in  subjects  other  than  those  named,  e.  g., 
industrial  chemistry,  but  only  that  they  have  not  the  same  claims 
on  funds  definitely  allocated  to  promote  the  special  objects  for 


340  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

which  that  system  exists.  The  needs  of  apphed  science,  engineer- 
ing, and  kindred  subjects  should,  in  time,  be  met  by  donors  who, 
while  in  general  sympathy  with  Christian  education,  are  more 
particularly  interested  in  the  development  of  these  subjects. 

556.  Organization. — Although  research  of  the  more  tech- 
nical kind  will  naturally  be  associated  with  special  institutes  and 
with  the  senior  colleges,  much  useful  work,  involving  compara- 
tively little  expense,  can  be  accomplished  throughout  almost  the 
whole  educational  system,  given  the  necessary  organization  and 
the  spirit  of  cooperation.  This  is  particularly  the  case  in  China, 
where  the  solution  of  many  problems  depends  on  the  systematic 
collection  of  data.  Throughout  its  report  the  Commission  is  em- 
phasizing the  point  that  the  schools  of  all  grades  and  the  colleges 
in  a  given  area  should  form  a  closely-linked  system  and  that  each 
individual  institution  should  contribute  to  the  strength  of  the  whole. 
This  unity  of  purpose  can  find  no  better  or  more  useful  expres- 
sion than  in  the  organized  collection,  sifting  and  interpretation  of 
data.  A  single  illustration  may  be  given.  A  great  need  in  China 
is  accurate  climatic  knowledge  and  particularly  precise  informa- 
tion as  to  the  distribution  and  seasonal  fall  of  rain,  including  the 
liability  to  variation  in  both  seasonal  and  total  annual  fall.  The 
utility  of  data  of  this  kind  to  agriculture,  and  especially  in  areas 
liable  to  famine,  is  recognized  to  be  enormous.  Failing  a  highly- 
organized  and  costly  meteorological  department,  such  as  has  pro- 
duced the  invaluable  "Atlas  of  Indian  Meteorology,"  the  collec- 
tion of  data  must  depend  on  a  number  of  voluntary  workers.  To 
equip  the  middle  and  higher  primary  schools  throughout  a  given 
province  or  higher  educational  area  with  simple  meteorological 
instruments  would  cost  comparatively  little;  the  recording  and 
understanding  of  the  data  so  obtained  would  have  considerable 
educational  value.  The  department  of  physics  or  physical  geog- 
raphy of  the  university  or  central  college  would  be  the  natural 
clearing-house  of  all  this  information,  would  sift  and  interpret 
the  data  and  would  ultimately  be  in  a  position  to  publish  accurate 
climatic  maps  of  the  region  and  to  work  out  their  significance  for 
agriculture. 


RESEARCH  AS  A  FACTOR  341 

The  same  methods  can  be  applied  to  many  other  aspects 
of  the  life  of  a  region,  both  physical  and  economic.  The  Regional 
Survey  Movement,  as  it  is  called  in  France,  England  and  other 
countries,  is  proving  at  once  of  scientific  and  of  educational  value. 
It  makes  the  interaction  between  a  community  and  its  physical 
environment  a  central  study  and  emphasizes  the  point  that  with 
man's  increasing  control  over  natural  forces  all  the  elements  in 
that  environment  can  be  made  to  serve  social  ends.  Its  object  is, 
therefore,  to  collect  and  coordinate  all  data  bearing  not  only  on  the 
present  conditions,  but  also  on  the  future  possibilities  of  the 
region  under  consideration.  For  this  purpose  it  seeks  to  organize 
different  groups  of  workers,  each  engaged  in  some  particular  local 
survey,  such  as  geological,  climatic,  vegetational,  agricultural, 
industrial,  sociological,  to  keep  them  in  constant  touch  with  one 
another  and  to  coordinate  the  results  obtained,  so  as  to  build  up  a 
synthetic  view  of  the  locality  or  neighborhood  as  a  whole  made 
up  of  related  parts.  Connected  surveys  of  this  kind  not  only  throw 
great  light  on  each  other  but  help  to  clear  up  problems  which 
baffle  more  isolated  investigations.  They  bring  together  in  a 
common  field  of  inquiry  different  groups  of  workers  and  foster 
in  the  coming  generation  an  intense  interest  in  their  own  neigh- 
borhood. The  work  can  be  spread  over  a  number  of  years,  can  be 
begun  on  a  very  humble  scale  and  developed  as  circumstances 
permit. 

557.  The  suggestion  is  therefore  made  that  as  early  as  prac- 
ticable steps  be  taken  to  institute  regional  surveys  of  this  kind, 
in  each  of  the  higher  educational  areas  for  the  whole  or  part  of 
the  field  served.  They  should  be  under  the  general  direction  of  the 
central  college  or  group  of  colleges,  but  every  effort  should  be  made 
to  enlist  the  assistance  of  school  teachers,  missionaries,  and  of  all 
others  capable  of  giving  help  of  any  kind.  It  is  also  preeminently 
the  kind  of  enterprise  in  which  cooperation  with  government 
schools  and  colleges  might  be  sought. 


CHAPTER  V 

THE  LANGUAGE  PROBLEM  IN  EDUCATION 

It  is  not  the  purpose  of  this  Chapter  to  discuss  the  whole 
question  of  the  place  of  linguistic  study  in  Chinese  schools,  but 
rather  to  consider  to  what  extent  Chinese,  especially  the  new 
national  language,  and  to  what  extent  English,  should  be  made 
the  subjects  of  study  and  used  as  mediums  of  instruction. 

558.  The  following  are  the  chief  elements  of  the  problem: 

a.  Christian  education  in  China  must  for  a  somewhat 
indefinite  period  be  organized  and  conducted  largely  by  teachers 
from  the  West. 

b.  There  is  widespread  desire  on  the  part  of  Chinese 
students  to  learn  English,  in  view  of  its  vocational  value.  This 
natural  desire  must  be  considered  in  its  relation  to  the  objectives 
of  Christian  education. 

c.  Suitable  text  and  reference  books  in  Chinese,  espe- 
cially for  college  and  vocational  subjects,  are  not  as  yet  available, 
and  their  lack  makes  instruction  in  Chinese  exceedingly  difficult. 

d.  There  is  a  great  diversity  of  dialects  in  the  spoken 
language,  making  it  impossible  for  the  people  in  one  district  to 
understand  their  fellow  countrymen  living  only  a  few  miles  distant. 
On  the  other  hand,  there  is  a  remarkable  interest  manifesting  itself 
on  the  part  of  progressive  Chinese  in  the  unification  and  national- 
ization of  their  language. 

I.    The  Problem  for  the  Missionary 

559.  That  every  educator  who  comes  to  China  for  life  should 

342 


THE  LANGUAGE  PROBLEM  343 

learn  to  speak  Chinese  will  be  regarded  as  axiomatic,  but  the  extent 
to  which  he  should  use  it  in  teaching  will  doubtless  vary  greatly 
with  the  locality  and  type  of  work. 

Every  missionary  faces  the  perplexing  problem  how 
to  acquire  an  adequate  knowledge  of  the  language  and  fluency  in 
its  use.  In  the  earlier  stages  of  mission  work  a  mastery  of  the 
language  was  the  sine  qua  non  of  all  activity  and  even  of  existence 
in  China.  There  was  also  much  more  freedom  for  studying  and 
occasion  for  practising  it.  Despite  the  trained  teachers,  scientific 
methods  and  other  facilities  afforded  by  the  excellent  language 
schools,  which  the  majority  of  recent  arrivals  attend,  there  is 
reason  to  fear  that  in  general  their  attainments  in  speaking  and 
especially  in  reading  Chinese  would  not  compare  favorably  with 
that  of  their  predecessors.  This  relative  deficiency  in  the  case  of 
younger  missionary  educators  is  perhaps  due  chiefly  to  the  pres- 
sure of  multifarious  duties  and  the  demand  for  teaching,  or  teach- 
ing in,  English.  Christian  schools  have  been  built  upon  so  wide- 
spread and  unrelated  a  basis,  and  have  so  frequently  yielded  to  the 
insistent  urge  for  enlargement  that,  with  constant  losses  and  dis- 
appointments as  concerns  available  teachers,  all  new  missionaries 
are  loaded  up  from  the  beginning  with  too  many  routine  tasks. 
Mission  work  is  becoming  increasingly  complex  and  entails  many 
extraneous  claims  upon  everyone.  Slow  progress  in  securing  the 
cooperation  of  qualified  Chinese  and  in  sharing  responsibilities 
with  them  results  in  the  necessity  of  the  foreigner  looking  after 
many  absorbing  details  for  which  his  Chinese  colleagues  should 
care.  Except  in  primary  schools,  English  is  taught  more  or  less, 
and  the  new  missionary  is  the  logical  one  to  do  this.  Before  long 
the  golden  days  for  language  study  have  slipped  by,  the  relish" 
for  it  is  lost;  contentment  with  such  knowledge  as  has  been  ac- 
quired becomes  habitual ;  the  Chinese,  with  whom  one  has  to  do 
daily,  show  no  outward  signs  of  disrespect ;  in  short,  there  is  no 
compelling  incentive  to  the  unremitting  study  and  resolute  refusal 
to  be  diverted  from  it,  which  alone  brings  proficiency.  This  im- 
perfect mastery  of  the  language  is  the  more  to  be  regretted  in 
educators  because  the  mass  of  Chinese  have  no  other  means  of 


344  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

appraising  one's  scholarship.  Recent  developments  are  making 
them,  especially  those  in  student  circles,  more  intelligently  critical. 
There  are  alluring  openings  for  friendly  contact  with  educated 
Chinese  and  for  the  exertion  of  influence  among  them,  such  as 
have  not  existed  in  the  past.  Most  important  of  all,  religious 
conversations,  even  with  students  who  are  fairly  at  home  in  Eng- 
lish, are  most  effective  in  their  mother-tongue.  But  such  conver- 
sations make  heavy  demands  on  the  vocabulary  and  general  lin- 
guistic powers  of  the  foreign  teacher.  The  same  is  equally  true 
of  all  public  religious  meetings  for  students  and  others.  For  the 
distinctive  purpose  of  Christian  education,  less  extensive  pro- 
grams, allowing  new  teachers  opportunity  for  constant  progress  in 
language  study  and  practice,  would  perhaps  accomplish  much  more. 
Apart  from  all  other  arguments  in  favor  of  fewer  schools  and 
greater  concentration,  the  linguistic  improvement  which  this  ought 
to  effect  among  western  teachers  is  a  weighty  consideration,  and 
calls  for  a  change  of  policy. 

II.  The  Problem  of  English 
560.  The  Chinese  are  eager  to  acquire  the  command  of 
English  for  both  commercial  and  cultural  reasons.  The  knowledge 
of  English  increases  one's  earning  capacity.  It  is  also  the  medium 
for  modern  learning  of  all  types,  and  is  the  coveted  evidence  of 
up-to-date  scholarship.  Both  of  these  are  proper  objectives  of 
Christian  education  and  enable  missionaries  to  render  a  service 
for  which  they  are  naturally  equipped.  The  vocational  aspects  of 
the  subject  are  discussed  elsewhere.  (See  Section  199).  As  to 
the  cultural  values,  the  situation  is  somewhat  analogous  to  that  in 
England  at  the  time  of  the  Renaissance  when  the  new  learning  was 
mediated  through  Greek  and  Latin,  which  continued  to  be  the 
stimulus  as  well  as  the  method  for  gaining  knowledge  until  the 
English  had  made  of  their  native  speech  a  vehicle  adequate  for 
all  demands. 

If  Macaulay's  dictum  is  true  elsewhere,  that  no  one 
understands  his  own  language  until  he  knows  at  least  one  other, 
it  is  peculiarly  true  in  China  to-day,  where  the  literary  style  is 
being  radically  changed  under  the  influence  of  western  culture. 


THE  LANGUAGE  PROBLEM  345 

The  time  will  surely  come,  and  missionary  education  is  hastening 
it,  when  the  Chinese  language  will  be  able  to  express,  and  Chinese 
scholars  to  furnish,  all  the  ideas  or  information  the  nation  will 
require.  But  until  then  at  least  English  will  be,  as  the  classics  or 
modern  European  languages  have  been  in  England  and  America, 
the  sign  of  broad  culture  and  a  most  useful  tool  for  acquiring  and 
imparting  it. 

From  the  standpoint  of  Christian  education  there  are, 
however,  two  main  objections  to  the  emphasis  on  English: 

a.  One  objection  is  cultural.  Either  it  is  emphasized  to 
the  point  of  neglecting  Chinese,  or  it  is  used  as  the  medium  of 
instruction  for  subjects  in  themselves  too  important  to  be  allowed 
to  suffer  by  forcing  the  student  to  give  his  thought  largely  to 
understanding  the  medium.  On  the  whole,  it  would  seem  emphat- 
ically unwise  to  teach  middle  school  subjects  to  any  large  extent 
in  English.  Wherever  the  six-year  middle  school  course  is  adopted, 
daily  study  of  English,  as  a  language,  throughout  this  period  ought 
to  give  sufficient  mastery  of  the  language  either  for  general  use 
or  for  entering  college.  This  should  obviate  the  necessity  for  be- 
ginning it  in  the  primary  school  or  for  using  it  for  language  prac- 
tice in  other  middle  school  subjects.  But  college  preparatory  Eng- 
lish, thus  limited,  must  be  very  thoroughly  and  scientifically  taught. 
Short-term  teachers  can  be  used  less  extensively  on  this  program 
than  where  more  subjects  are  taught  in  English,  but  they  can 
render  a  most  useful  service  in  teaching  it  as  a  subject.  It  should 
not  be  overlooked,  however,  that  there  are  localities  and  types  of 
schools  where  English  need  not  be  taught  at  all. 

b.  The  second  objection  is  a  moral  one.  A  student 
equipped  with  this  increased  earning  capacity  will  be  tempted  to 
enter  commercial  or  other  careers  instead  of  some  form  of  Chris- 
tian or  patriotic  service.  If,  however,  the  spiritual  life  of  the 
school  is  what  it  should  be  the  student  will  carry  the  Christian 
spirit  into  any  career  he  may  select,  whereas  those  who  deliber- 
ately choose  the  callings  involving  greater  sacrifice  will  do  so  with 
a  strength  of  conviction  which  should  promise  well  for  larger 
usefulness. 


346  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

The   fact  that  the  Christian  colleges  virtually  without 
exception  require  a  working  knowledge  of  English  and  use  it 
chiefly  throughout  the  course,  would  create  the  presumption  that 
this  policy  is  necessary  or,  at  least  most  advantageous.   This  idea 
is  strengthened  by  the  almost  equal  emphasis  on  English  in  govern- 
ment schools  of  the  same  grade,  and  reinforced  by  the  lack  of 
suitable  text  books  in  Chinese  and  the  wide  range  of  reference 
reading  made  possible  through   English,    There   is,   besides,  the 
practical  consideration  that  Christian  colleges  are  so  largely  staffed 
by  western  teachers  and  that  the  teaching  of  scientific  and  literary 
or  technical  subjects  of  this  grade  is  not  easy  for  any  foreigner 
through  a  language  acquired  as  an  adult,  especially  if  he  has  not 
achieved  sufficient  skill  for  such  specialized  use.    That  colleges  in 
China  of  all  types  will  eventually  come  to  use  the  language  of  the 
country  is  not  to  be  doubted;  it  is,  indeed,  highly  desirable  that 
this  should  come  to  pass  as  rapidly  as  possible.  The  only  questions 
are  how  Christian  educators  can  most  effectively  contribute  to  this 
end,  and  how  in  the  meantime  they  can  best  carry  on  their  instruc- 
tion. The  ideal  would  seem  to  be  a  bi-lingual  entrance  requirement 
for  the  present,  sufficiently  high  both  in  Chinese  and  in  English, 
and  an  elastic  bi-lingual  system  in  college  classes  by  which  each 
teacher  would  feel  free  to  use  either  language.   Thus,  the  lectures 
could  be  in  Chinese  with  text  and  reference  books  in  English. 
Or  the  teacher  and  his  students  might  make  English  the  basis  of 
instruction  while  falling  into  the  use  of  Chinese  when  convenient. 
Or  the  process  might  be  reversed  by  talking  in  Chinese,  but  em- 
ploying English  technical  terms.   This  flexible  system  would  keep 
students  constantly  close  to  their  mother-tongue,  and  give  them 
a  certain  nimbleness  or  ease  in  passing  from  one  speech  to  the 
other,  while  it  would  enable  the  teacher  to  use  the  medium  which 
could  better  express  his  thought  or  make  it  clearer  to  his  students. 
But  this  has  in  two  respects  important  implications  for  college 
administration.     Foreign  teachers,  except  in  the  case  of   short- 
term  people  and  special  lecturers  from  abroad,  must  be  permitted 
to  study  Chinese  much  more  continuously  and  diligently  than  is 
now  the  rule,  and  the  number  of  western-trained  Chinese  should 


J 


THE  LANGUAGE  PROBI-EM  347 

be  steadily  increased.    With  this  latter  development  the  problem 
will  largely  solve  itself. 

III.  The  Problem  of  Books 
561.  In  the  institutions  of  higher  education  and,  in- 
deed, to  a  considerable  extent  in  secondary  or  even  primary  schools, 
especially  also  in  religious  and  vocational  courses,  the  lack  of  text 
and  reference  books  is  a  serious  limitation.  Although  in  the  lower 
departments  this  is  being  rapidly  overcome  by  such  publications  as 
the  admirable  series  issued  by  the  Commercial  Press,  yet  much 
remains  to  be  done.  In  college  and  professional  subjects  this  is 
much  more  true.  In  all  general  courses,  however,  missionary  edu- 
cators are  in  danger  of  failing  to  keep  up  with  the  activities  of 
Chinese  who  are  producing  a  wide  range  of  educational  literature. 
In  the  main  this  field  will  be  more  and  more  covered  by  them. 
There  remain  the  distinctively  Christian  books,  and  such  technical 
volumes  as  probably  would  not  otherwise  be  provided  in  the  im- 
mediate future.  Hitherto  missionaries  have  perforce  done  much 
translating  or  adapting  of  western  text  books,  and  have  thus 
rendered  a  most  useful  service.  To  a  limited  degree  this  must 
continue.  But  the  creation  of  educational  and  Christian  literature 
ought  hereafter  to  be  achieved  by  a  much  greater  encouragement 
of  Chinese  original  efifort  than  in  the  past.  By  discovering, 
training,  inspiring,  and  otherwise  assisting  gifted  young  Chinese, 
missionaries  will  make  a  more  fruitful  contribution  than  by  any 
large  measure  of  direct  literary  work  in  Chinese.  It  is  the  very 
genius  of  Christianity  to  generate  life  and  help  it  to  function. 
It  prevents  the  foreign  flavor,  which  Chinese  detect  even  when 
missionaries  use  every  efifort  to  have  their  material  put  in  proper 
shape  by  Chinese  writers.  There  is  already  ample  evidence  of  the 
capacity  of  the  Chinese  for  such  work  and  their  eager  interest  in  it. 
Chinese  scholars  have  as  one  of  the  finest  elements  in  their  heritage 
the  instinct  for  literary  work  and,  when  this  is  combined  with 
modern  training  and  sufficient  freedom,  the  results  ought  to  be 
creditable  to  the  Christian  educational  enterprise.  But  Chinese 
teachers  in  mission  institutions  have  as  yet,  with  rare  exceptions, 
neither  the  equipment,  the  leisure  nor  the  impulse  for  high  grade 


348  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

literary  production.  Courses  specifically  intended  for  training 
writers  will  4iave  immense  value.  See  Chapter  on  Education  of 
Writers,  Sections  498-500. 

IV.  The  Problem  of  a  Unified  Speech 
562.  China  is  divided  into  numberless  dialectic  variations. 
There  is  also  the  separation  between  the  written  and  spoken 
language.  Public-spirited  leaders  realize  the  unifying  value  politi- 
cally, and  the  aid  to  progress  of  every  sort,  of  a  standard 
colloquial  which  would  not  differ  more  in  its  spoken  and  its 
written  forms  than  does  any  modern  European  language.  The 
promoters  of  the  "Literary  Revolution"  have  this  as  one  of  their 
chief  objectives.  The  new  "national  language"  is  being  intro- 
duced very  widely  in  government  and  private  schools.  Christian 
education  can  aid  greatly  in  this  beneficial  reform  by  requiring 
attention  to  this  in  all  Chinese  courses,  and  by  employing  Chinese 
teachers  as  extensively  as  possible  who  can  speak  the  standard 
pronunciation.  Foreign  teachers  will  find  the  new  style  much 
easier  to  read  than  the  now  almost  archaic  Wenli.  They  ought  to 
master  a  reading  knowledge  of  it  and  acquire  the  new  educational 
nomenclature.  One  aid  to  this,  while  at  the  same  time  keeping 
one  in  touch  with  Chinese  educational  advance,  would  be  to  sub- 
scribe to  "The  New  Education,"  a  monthly  edited  by  Chinese  edu- 
cational leaders. 


CHAPTER  VI 

SUMMER  SCHOOLS,  SHORT  COURSES  AND 
WINTER  INSTITUTES 

I.    For  Teachers 

563.  The  important  service  rendered  by  summer  schools 
is  well  recognized  in  the  West,  where  such  schools  have  become  a 
characteristic  feature  of  the  educational  system.  There  is  no  need 
to  argue  the  potential  value  of  similar  schools  in  China.  The  inade- 
quate preparation  of  many  teachers  and  their  comparative  isolation 
are  quite  sufficient  reasons  for  the  organization  of  summer  schools 
for  teachers  in  Christian  schools  and  colleges. 

The  Commission  has  no  complete  data  at  hand  showing 
the  extent  to  which  this  need  has  been  met  in  China.  Several 
colleges  hold  summer  schools,  and  the  summer  conferences  of  the 
Young  Men's  and  Young  Women's  Christian  Associations  have 
had  an  important  part  in  the  Christian  education  and  activities 
of  students. 

564.  There  are  doubtless  difficulties  to  be  met,  such  as : 

a.  The  relatively  small  number  of  teachers  to  be  served ; 

b.  Their  scattered  posts  and  the  consequent  expense  of 
time  and  money  for  travel  to  central  points ; 

c.  The  heat  of  summer,  which  is  great  in  most  parts  of 
China  and  militates  against  the  best  work; 

d.  The  fact  that  the  chief  dependence  for  instruction 
must  be  upon  those  already  overworked ; 

e.  The  fact  that  the  teachers  who  come  to  the  school  as 
pupils  themselves  are  pretty  thoroughly  fagged  by  the  time  of 
the  summer  vacation ; 

f.  The  expense  of  the  school. 

349 


350  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

565.  Summer  school  for  advanced  zvork. — It  is,  however, 
not  only  highly  desirable,  but  almost  imperative  that  provision  be 
made  for  the  further  training  of  teachers  in  mission  schools. 
One  plan  proposed  for  meeting  this  need  contemplates  a  summer 
school  of  education  oflfering  courses  of  college  and  (post-) graduate 
grade,  much  on  the  model  of  the  summer  school  at  Teachers' 
College  of  Columbia  University.  Credit  must  be  granted  by  insti- 
tutions in  Great  Britain  and  America  for  work  done  in  such  a 
school.  The  school  could  be  of  about  three  weeks'  duration,  and 
be  held  successively  in  two  different  centers  each  year,  thus  serving 
all  parts  of  China.  At  least  two  members  of  the  staff  should  come 
from  abroad  for  the  summer's  work.  It  should  be  planned  to  meet 
the  needs  of  both  Chinese  and  foreign  teachers. 

This  plan  does  not  meet  all  of  the  difficulties  involved, 
but  such  a  school  would  be  of  great  value  to  the  teachers  and  to 
the  cause  of  Christian  education  in  China.  We  commend  to  the 
attention  both  of  the  associations  in  China  and  of  the  Boards  at 
home  the  need  of  working  out  some  plan  which  will  effectively 
reach  teaching  staffs  with  strong,  stimulating,  advanced  summer 
school  work. 

566.  Short  courses  or  zvinter  instifufes. — It  is  evident  that 
the  rank  and  file  of  teachers  must  be  given  reasonably  easy  oppor- 
tunity to  secure  assistance  for  study.  We  suggest,  therefore,  a 
plan  of  short  courses  or  teachers'  institutes,  of  a  week  or  ten  days 
in  length,  to  be  given  once  a  year  in  each  of  about  thirty  centers 
in  China,  by  an  itinerant  staff  of  especially  qualified  teachers  of 
teachers.  This  staff  should  be  composed  of  Chinese  and  mission- 
ary educators,  and  persons  from  abroad  brought  over  for  a  year's 
special  service.  Centers  should  be  so  located  as  to  secure  the 
attendance  of  practically  all  the  teachers  in  the  area,  and  schools 
should  be  closed  to  enable  teachers  to  attend.  Provision  should 
he  made  for  both  Chinese  and  foreign  teachers.  These  short 
courses  should  designedly  feed  into  the  summer  schools,  and 
should  be  supplemented  if  possible  by  correspondence  and  read- 
ing courses.  Some  recognition  of  attendance  should  be  given  in 
salaries  as  well  as  by  certificates.     It  is  desirable  that  the  colleges 


SUMMER  SCHOOLS  AND  WINTER  INSTITUTES  351 

of  education  and  the  provincial  and  national  boards  of  education 
carry  large  responsibilities  in  this  phase  of  work. 

While  these  short  courses  are  designed  primarily  for 
professional  improvement  and  must  be  very  practical,  a  fair  pro- 
portion of  the  time,  perhaps  one-fourth,  should  be  given  to  sub- 
jects of  more  general  concern,  such  as  literature,  health,  and  pubHc 
questions,  and  in  the  case  of  rural  teachers,  the  use  of  the  school 
as  a  community  center  and  the  place  of  the  school  in  village  devel- 
opment. 

567.  Summer  courses  in  colleges. — Each  of  the  schools  and 
colleges  giving  teacher-training  courses  should  endeavor  to  hold 
summer  schools  for  teachers  in  service.  Two  classes  of  teachers 
should  be  provided  for,  the  old  style  teachers  who  have  had  no 
normal  training,  and  the  teachers  who  attend  for  relatively  ad- 
vanced work.    If  possible,  credit  should  be  given  for  this  work. 

The  time  will  probably  come  when  regular  under- 
graduate work  will  be  given  in  the  summer  by  some  of  the  colleges. 
Possibly  the  Associated  Christian  Colleges  of  China  could  unite 
in  the  conduct  of  such  a  summer  session  in  a  place  not  too  tryingly 
hot.  A  strong  staff  could  be  drawn  from  the  various  colleges,  and 
by  rotating  professors  no  missionary  educator  need  do  summer 
work  more  than  twice  during  a  term  of  service  in  China. 

568.  Unquestionably  all  of  these  proposals  involve  expense. 
But  the  imperative  need  for  training-in-service  of  all  teachers  in 
the  Christian  institutions  in  China  justifies  even  seemingly  elabo- 
rate plans  for  meeting  the  demand.  If  quality  of  work  is  really 
the  key-word  for  the  Christian  educational  forces,  a  successful 
program  of  short  courses  for  the  teachers  must  be  made. 

II.  For  Preachers  and  Other  Religious  Workers 

569.  All  that  has  been  said  in  favor  of  constantly  recurring 
opportunities  for  the  training  of  teachers  in  service  applies  with 
almost  equal  force  to  the  workers  whose  task  is  more  immediately 
that  of  recruiting  and  training  converts  to  the  Christian  life.  The 
Commission  is  not  prepared  to  submit  a  plan  of  operations.    Con- 


352  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

fessedly  the  subject  calls  for  more  consideration  than  we  have  been 
able  to  give  it.  But  we  see  no  reason  why  the  general  plans  sug- 
gested for  teachers  might  not  be  the  basis  of  similar  plans  for 
the  preacher  and  his  confreres. 

III.    Short  Courses  for  Various  Groups  of  Adults 

570.  There  are  possibilities  of  great  significance  in  the  even- 
tual development  of  many  types  of  short  courses  for  special 
groups,  church  workers,  Sunday-school  teachers,  and  other  spe- 
cialists, lay  or  professional.  Increasing  social  organization  in 
China  will  soon  bring  these  groups  into  being.  Probably  the 
colleges  are  on  the  whole  the  best  agencies  for  offering  short 
courses  to  these  groups.  We  commend  to  all  colleges  and,  indeed, 
to  middle  schools,  the  idea  of  making  the  short  course  (one  week, 
two  weeks,  four  weeks,  as  needed)  an  organic  part  of  the  resident 
teaching  service  to  be  inaugurated  and  developed  as  real  need 
emerges. 

571.  The  need  of  developing  this  work  for  teachers,  preach- 
ers, and  others  is  urgent.  Some  difficulties  which  must  be  reckoned 
with  in  carrying  out  these  or  similar  plans  for  short  course  instruc- 
tion have  been  mentioned,  but  many  of  these  same  obstacles  have 
had  to  be  overcome  in  western  countries.  Wise  choice  of  location, 
moderate  demands  upon  individiial  instructors,  variety  of  program, 
and  ample  recreation,  will  all  aid  in  making  summer  schools  attrac- 
tive and  feasible. 

The  Commission  emphasizes  the  vital  importance  of 
this  subject,  and  reiterates  the  suggestion  that  it  be  made  a  subject 
of  early  study  by  the  Christian  educational  forces  in  China. 


CHAPTER  VII 

SCHOOL   AND    COLLEGE    LIBRARIES 

I.    Development  of  the  Reading  Habit 

572.  The  library  in  a  school  or  college  has  a  double  function, 
to  foster  a  love  of  reading  for  its  own  sake,  and  to  provide  for 
both  teacher  and  pupil  the  books  needed  for  collateral  reading 
and  advanced  study. 

The  Chinese  student  often  shows  a  marked  contrast 
between  high  attainment  in  the  subjects  he  has  studied  and  mea- 
greness  of  general  knowledge  and  interests.  This  poverty  of 
general  mental  equipment  is  due  in  the  main  to  the  lack  of  a  habit 
of  general  reading,  and  this  again  to  the  small  number  of  books, 
outside  his  required  text  books,  which  are  available  to  him  while 
at  school.  The  difficulties  of  the  Chinese  language  are  responsible 
for  this  condition.  The  wider  use  of  the  spoken  language  in 
literature  is,  however,  tending  to  correct  this.  But  lack  in  training 
to  read  for  the  acquisition  of  knowledge  or  for  mere  pleasure  is 
also  partly  responsible. 

573.  Beginning  with  the  primary  grades  the  teacher  should 
see  that  attractive  books,  in  a  style  that  is  easy  to  understand,  are 
placed  at  the  pupil's  disposal.  If  necessary,  such  supplementary 
reading  may  at  first  be  required  in  connection  with  other  subjects. 
In  some  of  the  large,  publicly-supported  day  schools  a  reading 
room  is  found,  furnished  with  tables  and  chairs,  with  simple 
magazines  and  newspapers  on  the  tables,  and  a  case  or  two  filled 
with  attractive  illustrated  books  of  biography  and  other  subjects. 
Lists  of  such  books  and  magazines  can  be  secured  from  the  large 
Chinese  publishing  firms.     In  a  small  day  school  where  it  is  not 

353 


354  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

possible  to  have  a  room  set  aside  for  this' purpose,  there  should  be 
a  case  or  shelf  for  books  which  may  be  taken  by  the  child  to  his 
desk  for  silent  reading.  Definite  periods  may  be  assigned  for 
such  reading,  and  brief  reports,  either  verbal  or  written,  of  the 
contents  of  the  books  may  be  required. 

In  the  middle  school,  and  in  the  primary  boarding  school, 
there  should,  if  possible,  be  a  room  which  is  used  solely  as  a 
library  and  reading  room.  One  corner  of  it  may  contain  some 
easy  chairs,  a  fireplace  and  shelves  with  books  of  general  interest. 
This  should  be  made  the  most  attractive  corner  in  the  whole  school, 
for  pleasure  in  reading  is  increased  by  pleasant  surroundings. 
Where  such  a  separate  reading  room  is  not  possible,  groups  of 
books  may  be  temporarily  placed  in  class  rooms. 

By  the  time  a  student  reaches  college  his  habits  of 
reading  are  more  or  less  determined.  There  is  still  need,  however, 
for  bringing  new  books  of  interest  and  value  to  his  attention  by 
means  of  bulletin  board  notices. 

A  definite  share  of  the  allowance  for  the  purchase  of 
books  should  be  used  for  books  of  general  interest,  including 
fiction,  and  for  magazines  and  newspapers.  Teachers,  as  well  as 
the  librarian,  should  assume  the  responsibility  of  seeing  that  the 
books  are  read. 

II.    Reference  Libraries 

574.  In  the  primary  school  the  reference  library  should 
include  a  small  selection  of  supplementary  books  for  the  students 
(these  may  be  included  in  the  general  book  shelf  already  men- 
tioned), and  especially  those  helps  for  the  teacher  which  he  can- 
not be  expected  to  buy  for  himself.  Salaries  in  China  do  not 
leave  much  margin  for  book  buying.  Besides  books,  the  school 
may  well  subscribe  for  a  few  of  the  Chinese  educational  journals. 
When  the  school  is  large  enough  to  have  a  teachers'  room  these 
books  and  magazines  may  be  kept  there.  Every  class  room  should 
contain  a  Chinese  dictionary,  accessibly  placed,  and  the  children 
should  be  accustomed  to  refer  to  it  for  the  meaning  of  unfamiliar 
words. 


SCHOOL  AND  COLLEGE  LIBRARIES  355 

The  middle  school  should  have  a  teachers'  room,  with  a 
reference  library.  The  students'  library  should  contain  a  wisely- 
chosen  selection  of  standard  Chinese  books,  but  books  in  English 
will  also  be  required,  varying  in  number  according  to  the  emphasis 
placed  upon  the  study  of  English.  A  limited  number  of  the  more 
expensive  English  reference  books  and  sets  should  be  included 
for  the  sake  of  the  foreign  teachers,  but  these  books  should  not 
be  permitted  to  encroach  upon  those  more  widely  used  by  the 
students  and  Chinese  members  of  the  faculty. 

575.  The  Christian  colleges  of  China  have  only  begun  to 
realize  the  absolute  necessity  of  a  good  library.  Only  a  few  have 
what  would  be  considered  even  the  beginnings  of  a  college  library. 
This  applies  to  both  Chinese  and  English  books.  A  study  of 
budgets  shows  that  as  a  rule  the  appropriations  for  the  purchase  of 
books  are  quite  inadequate.  In  general  the  amount  should  not  be 
less  than  five  per  cent  of  the  total  annual  budget.  When  books  are 
selected  by  departments  a  special  allowance  should  be  made  for 
books  of  general  use,  such  as  encyclopedias.  Dead  wood  should 
be  kept  out.  Gifts  of  books  from  private  libraries  at  home  often 
result  only  in  filling  shelves  with  volumes  of  no  present-day  value. 
By  giving  an  impression  of  numbers  they  actually  tend  to  prevent 
the  purchase  of  books  that  are  really  needed. 

Not  all  Christian  colleges  can  afford  to  be  equally  strong 
in  all  departments  of  the  library;  as  courses  are  differentiated 
among  the  colleges  so  libraries  should  be.  There  may  then  be  a 
working  arrangement  whereby  books  can  be  loaned  from  one 
library  to  another  as  they  are  needed. 

III.    Librarians 

576.  In  the  primary  school  and  in  most  middle  schools  the 
teacher  or  an  older  student  will  act  as  librarian.  Where  the  school 
is  large  and  there  is  a  library  reading  room  there  is  need  of  a  paid 
librarian.  Few  schools,  even  among  the  colleges,  can  afford  a 
trained  librarian  from  abroad.  Usually  a  foreign  member  of  the 
staff  is  in  general  charge  of  the  library,  with  one  or  more  Chinese 


356  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

assistants  trained  locally.  A  better  method  would  be  the  appoint- 
ment of  a  thoroughly  trained  Chinese  librarian,  one  or  two  full- 
time  assistants,  and  a  number  of  student  assistants.  Whatever  the 
method  employed  a  faculty  library  committee  is  advisable.  Pro- 
vision for  the  training  of  librarians  should  be  offered  in  connec- 
tion with  one  of  the  Chinese  Christian  colleges.  Fortunately  such 
a  course  is  now  offered  at  Boone  University,  and  there  is  no  need 
of  its  duplication  elsewhere.  Not  only  is  there  a  three-years' 
course  to  train  fully-qualified  librarians,  but  short  courses  are 
offered  to  Chinese  and  foreign  librarians  and  assistants. 


IV.    Library  Extcnsio7J  Work 

577.  Extension  work  of  value  can  be  carried  on  in  connec- 
tion with  school  and  college  libraries.  What  can  be  done  is  shown 
by  the  activities  of  the  library  of  Boone  University.  It  has  estab- 
lished, in  Wuchang,  the  first  public  library  in  China  run  on  modern 
lines.  It  also  maintains  four  public  reading  rooms  in  the  same 
city,  and  has  a  system  of  travelling  libraries  for  the  benefit  of 
schools  and  other  organizations  in  the  Yangtse  valley.  It  has 
recently  offered,  most  generously,  to  put  the  services  of  its  two 
trained  lilirarians  at  the  disposal  of  other  librarians  to  assist  in 
organization  and  development. 

578.  With  the  correlation  of  Christian  schools  into  provin- 
cial or  regional  areas,  and  the  linking  of  the  schools  with  the  col- 
leges in  these  areas,  it  should  not  be  difficult  to  develop  a  system 
of  travelling  school  libraries,  under  the  direction  of  the  college 
library  or  the  provincial  board  of  education.  Arrangements  might 
also  be  made  whereby  single  volumes  from  a  college  library  could 
be  loaned  to  individuals  at  a  distance. 

Missionaries  are  not  able  to  bring  with  them  all  the 
books  they  would  wish,  especially  expensive  technical  reference 
books.  The  provision  for  loan  to  individuals  of  a  number  of  small 
sets  of  books  on  professional  subjects  similar  to  those  furnished 
to  American  ministers  by  the  American  Institute  of  Sacred  Liter- 
ature, would  be  a  great  help.   They  might  well  b?  handled  by  one 


SCHOOL  AND  COLLEGE  LIBRARIES  357 

of  the  centrally  located  college  libraries.  Similar  sets  in  Chinese 
could  be  made  available  for  Chinese  teachers  in  each  educational 
area. 

In  these  and  other  ways  the  advantages  of  the  college 
or  school  library  could  be  extended  throughout  the  whole  system 
of  Christian  education. 


CHAPTER  VIII 

THE  ARCHITECTURE  OF  SCHOOL  BUILDINGS 

579.  The  tendency  to  copy  the  West  and  seldom  to  choose  the 
best  is  seen  in  the  buildings  erected  by  the  Chinese  in  every  pro- 
vincial capital,  for  government  and  school  use,  and  known  as 
foreign  style.  The  preference  is  for  a  rococo  style  of  decoration 
of  the  exterior  and  early  Victorian  interiors.  It  is  a  thousand 
pities  that  they  have  failed  to  appreciate  the  superiority  of  their 
own  style  in  architecture,  "a  style  worthy  of  a  place  beside  the 
Greek  and  the  Gothic."  The  missions  have  not  been  entirely  guilt- 
less in  this  matter,  for  in  the  buildings  which  they  have  erected 
they  have  often  imitated  the  worst  in  western  architecture. 

Many  of  the  buildings  planned  and  built  during  the  last 
five  years  for  Christian  colleges  have  been  incorporating  some 
features  of  Chinese  style.  One  Chinese  college  (private)  is  erect- 
ing a  group  of  Chinese  buildings.  The  problem  of  adaptation 
enters  here  as  into  all  this  transformation  taking  place  in  China. 
Some  of  the  efforts  to  follow  Chinese  style  in  school  and  college 
buildings  are  not  altogether  successful  and  are  severely  criticized 
by  the  Chinese;  but  the  effort  should  continue,  for  the  beauty  of 
palace  and  temple  courts,  the  more  modest  beauties  of  cloistered 
quadrangles  and  moon  doorways,  the  curving  roof  lines  and 
columned  porticos,  are  a  part  of  the  best  of  old  China.  The 
expense  is  justified  in  college  building.  Beauty  builds  itself  into 
character  and  college  loyalties  are  strengthened  by  memories  of  a 
campus  beautiful. 

Middle  school  buildings  call  for  simpler  treatment.  Sep- 
arate class   room   buildings   could   be   designed   with   a   view  to 

358 


ARCHITECTURE  OF  SCHOOL  BUILDINGS  359 

preserving  the  simple  dignity  of  the  smaller  temples  or  middle- 
class  homes.  Dormitories  in  modest  quadrangles  can  be  built  at 
moderate  cost  and  Chinese  students  will  feel  more  at  home  in 
them  than  in  foreign  factory-style  buildings. 

Primary  school  buildings  should  be  simple  and  inexpen- 
sive, with  plenty  of  light,  good  ventilation,  blackboards  and  modest 
furniture.  The  Chinese  table  is  as  good  as  the  American  desk 
if  correct  height  is  considered. 

580.  Architecture,  or  at  least  the  study  of  design  in  buildings 
and  interior  decoration,  deserves  a  place  in  the  curriculum.  There 
is  a  growing  demand  for  draughtsmen  in  connection  with  archi- 
tectural firms  in  large  cities.  The  Mission  Architectural  Bureau 
asks  the  missions  to  provide  for  such  training  and  it  would  seem 
desirable  to  have  one  of  the  colleges  develop  a  department  of 
architecture,  preferably  in  connection  with  a  course  in  civil  engi- 
neering and  in  one  of  the  centers  where  architects  would  be  avail- 
able for  lectures  and  other  instruction. 


PART  V 

SUMMARY  OF  GENERAL  PRINCIPLES  AND 
RECOMMENDx\TIONS 

581.  The  purpose  of  this  part  of  the  Report  is  to  present  in 
condensed  form  the  general  principles  and  recommendations  which 
the  studies  of  the  Commission  have  led  them  to  adopt.  In  sub- 
stance, and  to  a  considerable  extent  in  language,  this  part  repeats 
what  has  been  said  more  fully  in  the  previous  parts. 

I.    The  Purpose  and  Spirit  of  Christian  Education 

582.  The  distinctive  contribution  of  Christian  education  to  the 
total  task  of  the  church  in  China  is  the  application  of  the  methods 
of  education  to  the  realization  of  the  aim  of  Christian  missions, 
which  is,  the  establishment  of  the  Kingdom  of  God  through  the 
bringing  of  individuals  into  personal  relations  with  Jesus  Christ, 
and  the  creation  of  a  Christian  social  order.  Its  contribution  to 
the  total  work  of  education  in  China  is  the  provision  of  an  educa- 
tion that  permeates  every  aspect  of  school  life  with  the  Christian 
spirit,  and  thus,  by  its  content  and  its  method,  meets  the  deepest 
spiritual  needs  of  the  students. 

583.  The  essential  characteristic  of  Christian  education  is, 
therefore,  not  in  the  body  under  whose  authority  it  is  conducted, 
nor  in  the  ecclesiastical  relations  of  the  persons  conducting  it.  nor 
fundamentally  in  the  subject-matter  of  the  curriculum,  but  in  its 
spirit  and  purpose.  It  is  education  which  is  conducted  in  the 
Christian  spirit  and  which  exemplifies  and  imparts  that  spirit. 

584.  In  order,  however,  to  conserve  and  guarantee  the  Chris- 
tian character  of  a  system  of  education,  it  must  be  under  the  con- 

361 


362  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

trol  of  Christian  men  or  women.  In  speaking,  therefore,  of  a 
system  of  Christian  education  we  must  include  in  our  definition 
not  only  the  Christian  spirit  and  motive  of  those  who  conduct  the 
schools,  but,  as  a  guarantee  of  the  continuance  of  its  Christian 
character,  the  provision  that  it  is  controlled  by  Christian  men 
and  women. 

585.  Since  it  is  of  the  essence  of  the  Christian  spirit  to  desire 
to  do  good  to  all  men  as  we  have  opportunity,  no  form  or  type 
of  education  which  will  conduce  to  the  well-being  of  the  Chinese 
can  be  in  principle  excluded  from  the  scope  of  Christian  education 
in  China.  The  Sunday-school  and  the  school  of  commerce  are 
both  within  its  possible  scope.  Either  may  be  excluded  by  the 
spirit  in  which  it  is  conducted. 

While  the  individual  school  may  emphasize  the  evangelis- 
tic, edificatory,  permeative,  or  broadly  philanthropic  purpose,  no 
one  of  these  terms  alone  is  large  enough  to  express  the  full  pur- 
pose of  Christian  education  as  a  whole.  All  must  be  compre- 
hended to  realize  that  purpose  perfectly. 

586.  The  personality  of  the  educator  is  a  matter  of  essential 
importance.  Neither  perfect  organization,  nor  ideal  curriculum 
and  equipment  can  insure  the  best  results.  Character  is  an  essen- 
tial element  in  the  product  of  education,  and  therefore  in  the 
teacher. 

587.  The  prime  consideration  in  every  school  must  be  the 
human  product  of  the  school.  Name  and  place  in  a  system  may 
be  important,  but  are  secondary  to  the  development  of  personali- 
ties. 

588.  Christian  education  should  clearly  recognize  the  valu- 
able elements  of  Chinese  civilization  and  seek  to  conserve  them ; 
the  vices  of  western  civilization  and  seek  to  exclude  them ;  the 
defects  of  Chinese  life  and  seek  to  correct  them ;  the  valuable 
elements  of  western  civilization  and  the  essential  principles  of 
Christianity,  and  seek  to  impart  them  to  China,  making  them  vital 
elements  of  Chinese  life, 

589.  A  system  of  Christian  education  parallel  to  that  of  the 
government  will  be  needed  in  China  for  a  long  time  to  come. 


SUMMARY  363 

Nor  is  it  likely  that  the  people  of  China  will  wish  or  consent  to 
dispense  with  Christian  schools  so  long  as  they  are  thoroughly 
good  schools,  patriotic  and  national  in  atmosphere  and  influence, 
promptly  and  fully  meeting  all  government  requirements,  avoiding 
all  exotic  and  foreign  characteristics,  cooperating  with  government 
education  in  all  practicable  ways,  yet  furnishing  a  healthy  variant 
from  the  uniform  standard,  and  producing  for  the  changing  life 
of  China  a  Christian  group,  forward-looking  and  thoughtful,  and 
at  the  same  time  disciplined  and  self-controlled.  In  establishing 
Christian  education  of  this  type  in  China  we  may  be  assured  that 
we  are  building  for  a  long  future. 

590.  It  should  always  be  kept  in  mind  that  the  Christian 
forces  are  developing  a  system  of  education  which  is  to  serve  the 
needs  of  China,  not  the  ends  of  any  foreign  nation.  To  this  end 
all  nationalities  taking  part  in  educational  work  should  cooperate 
in  the  development  of  a  single  harmonious  system  adapted  to 
China's  needs,  and  should  avoid  so  stereotyping  their  own  particu- 
lar type  and  method  of  education  as  to  hinder  the  development 
of  a  truly  Chinese  system.  Neither  nationalism  nor  denomina- 
tionalism  should  stand  in  the  way  of  the  development  of  education 
adapted  to  China's  needs. 

591.  From  the  same  point  of  view  the  participation  of  the 
Chinese,  both  in  the  work  of  teaching  and  in  that  of  organization 
and  administration,  and  especially  in  that  of  discovering  the 
methods  best  adapted  to  China,  should  increase  as  rapidly  as  quali- 
fied men  and  women  can  be  found.  The  Chinese  membership  on 
the  managing  boards  of  mission  schools  should  be  increased  as 
rapidly  as  possible  to  one-half,  and  should  eventually  displace  for- 
eigners. Foreigners  should  be  employed  only  for  services  for 
which  there  is  as  yet  an  inadequate  number  of  competent  Chinese, 
and  the  foreigners  who  are  thus  employed  should  be  thoroughly 
qualified  for  their  specific  tasks. 

592.  To  the  end  that  all  the  educational  work  conducted  by 
the  Christian  forces  may  be  conducted  both  economically  and  effi- 
ciently, provision  should  be  made  for  the  investigation  in  as  thor- 
ough a  manner  as  possible  of  the  needs  of  China,  religious,  social, 


364  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

political,  economical,  educational,  and  of  the  methods  by  which 
these  needs  may  be  met  through  the  creation  and  maintenance  of  a 
civilization  at  once  essentially  Chinese  and  Christian.  Of  special 
importance  is  the  thorough  investigation  of  the  type  of  education 
that  will  best  serve  the  needs  of  the  Christian  community  and  the 
Chinese  people  as  a  whole.  To  stimulate  and  direct  investigation 
in  these  fields  there  should  be  established,  at  an  early  day,  an  In- 
stitute of  Educational  Research  and  an  Institute  of  Economic 
and  Social  Research. 


II.    Principles  of  Extension  and  Li}nitation 

593.  The  greatness  of  the  task  of  education  to  be  accom- 
plished in  China,  the  limited  resources  of  the  Christian  forces, 
Chinese  and  foreign  combined,  and  the  achievements,  resources 
and  responsibilities  of  the  government,  combine  to  limit  the  edu- 
cation which  the  Christian  forces  can  undertake  to  a  small  frac- 
tion of  the  total  task. 

594.  The  particular  portion  of  the  task  to  be  undertaken 
must  be  carefully  chosen.  In  view  of  the  fact  that  only  a  thor- 
oughly naturalized  Christianity  can  ever  make  China  thoroughly 
Christian,  the  chief  immediate  goal  of  the  Christian  educational 
forces  should  be  the  development  of  a  strong  Christian  community. 
In  this  purpose  should  be  included  the  numerical  increase  of  this 
Christian  community,  but  more  especially  its  development  in 
health,  resources,  intelligence,  character,  and  spiritual  power. 
There  can  be  but  limited  place  for  schools  which  do  not  contribute 
to  this  total  result.  The  development  of  a  Christian  community 
within  the  nation  is  not  indeed  the  ultimate  goal  of  the  Christian 
movement,  but  must  be  understood  as  the  means  to  the  achieve- 
ment of  the  larger  purpose  of  making  China  a  nation  Christian 
in  principle  and  practice,  and  of  elevating  her  national  life  in  all 
possible  ways.  But  the  most  effective  means  to  this  larger  end  is 
the  building  up  of  a  Christian  community,  numerically,  physically, 
economically,  morally,  and  spiritually  strong,  and  this  should 
therefore  occupy  the  place  of  central  importance  in  the  Christian 


i 


SUMMARY  365 

educational  enterprise.  In  this  process  it  is  of  the  utmost  im- 
portance that  the  spiritual  and  cultural  ends  of  education  shall 
not  be  lost  sight  of,  or  subordinated  to  the  commercial  or  material 
interest. 

595.  On  the  other  hand,  one  essential  characteristic  of  a 
Christian  community  is  the  spirit  of  Christian  service,  the  impulse 
of  its  members  to  benefit  their  fellow-men  without  too  careful 
calculation  of  the  reflex  benefit  to  the  church  itself.  Christian 
education  must  not  therefore  confine  itself  too  strictly  to  measures 
which  are  directed  solely  toward  the  development  of  the  Christian 
community.  To  be  true  to  itself  it  must  be  sensitive  to  human 
need  as  such,  and  responsive  to  its  call. 

596.  In  the  fulfillment  of  its  purpose  Christian  education 
must  ofiev  its  educational  opportunities  both  to  <^hristian  and  to 
non-Christian,  and  in  general   without  discrimination. 

597.  The  achievement  of  the  aims  of  Christian  education 
necessarily  involves : 

a.  The  development  of  natural  aptitudes,  the  enrichment 
of  personal  life,  and  the  unfolding  of  personality. 

b.  Equipment  for  a  definite  line  of  life  work  in  which 
Christian  service  can  be  rendered,  whether  by  distinctively  voca- 
tional training,  which  should  be  at  the  same  time  liberal,  or  by 
handling  general  subjects  in  such  a  way  as  to  give  them  the  most 
direct  bearing  possible  on  those  professions  or  occupations  which 
are  likely  to  be  followed  by  students  taking  a  non-specialized 
course  of  instruction. 

c.  Specific  training  for  citizenship  under  the  conditions 
which  control  modern  Chinese  life. 

598.  The  education  offered  in  all  grades  of  schools  should, 
therefore,  include  training  for  definite  service  in  the  work  of  mak- 
ing China  Christian  in  principle  and  practice,  and  equipment  for 
an  occupation  should  be  a  leading  part  of  the  goal  of  all  schools. 
Occupational  training  should,  however,  be  liberalized,  being  un- 
derstood to  include  training  for  Christian  service  to  society 
through  vocations,  personal  growth  through  work  intelligently 
performed,   and  preparation   for  the  duties   of   citizenship   in  a 


366  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

democracy.  Provision  should  also  be  made  for  the  enrichment 
of  personal  life  through  the  development  of  appreciation  of  nature, 
literature,  and  art. 

599.  Confessedly  unable  to  fill  the  whole  educational  field,  or 
to  undertake  all  the  educational  work  which  it  might  be  desirable 
for  them  to  assume,  the  Christian  forces  should  seek  all  possible 
cooperation  with  government  education.  Such  cooperation  may 
consist  in  actual  partnership  in  a  school,  in  the  training  of  teachers 
who  will  find  their  sphere  of  usefulness  in  government  schools,  or 
in  the  exertion  of  a  moral  and  religious  influence  on  the  students 
in  government  and  other  non-Christian  institutions.  In  some  re- 
gions, or  types,  of  education  the  purposes  of  Christian  education 
may  be  better  achieved  by  cooperation  than  by  the  maintenance 
of  separate  schools. 

600.  To  fulfill  its  central  purpose  Christian  education  must 
for  the  present,  and  probably  for  some  time  to  come,  conduct 
schools  of  all  grades  from  the  lowest  to  the  highest.  It  is  essential 
to  the  production  of  the  Christian  community  that  development 
of  character  be  made  a  matter  of  concern  from  the  elementary 
school  up.  Whatever  may  now,  or  later,  be  accomplished  in  some 
localities  by  adding  religious  instruction  and  Christian  influence 
to  the  education  given  in  public  schools,  the  inadequacy  of  this 
method  to  meet  the  whole  situation  in  China  will,  for  a  long  time 
at  least,  require  the  maintenance  of  Christian  elementary  schools, 
and  the  provision,  from  this  level  up,  of  schools  under  Christian 
control  and  influence. 

601.  With  a  view  to  accomplishing  the  most  possible  with 
the  resources  available,  ratios  should  be  established  between  the 
number  of  primary  schools  and  middle  schools,  and  between  the 
latter  and  the  colleges ;  also  between  schools  for  boys  and  schools 
for  girls.  As  in  the  work  already  done  in  this  field  by  the  China 
Christian  Educational  Association,  these  ratios  should  be  based  on 
reasonable  expectations  of  the  number  of  pupils  who  will  pass 
from  each  grade  to  the  higher,  and  be  used  as  a  general  guide  to 
the  number  of  schools  to  be  maintained. 

602.  Schools  of  all  grades  and  types  should    be    made    as 


SUMMARY  367 

nearly  model  or  "quality"  schools  as  possible.  The  best  methods, 
equipment  and  teaching  staff  obtainable  should  be  the  goal,  but 
without  extravagance  in  physical  equipment.  Schools  that  cannot 
maintain  this  superior  quality  should,  after  a  reasonable  effort,  be 
abandoned,  and  no  enterprise  should  be  launched  that  does  not 
have  reasonable  hope  of  maintaining  high  quality. 

603.  The  same  principle  should  be  followed  with  reference  to 
the  areas  in  which  development  of  schools  shall  be  pressed.  It 
is  better  to  develop  education  of  any  given  type — medical  educa- 
tion for  example — to  the  point  of  efficiency  in  one  region,  even 
at  the  cost  of  delaying  the  opening  of  work  in  another  region, 
than  to  develop  both  inefficiently.  On  the  other  hand,  it  must 
be  recognized  that  the  type,  or  grade,  of  education  which  can 
be  developed  in  a  given  area  is  largely  dependent  on  the  stage 
of  development  which  the  Christian  movement  has  attained  in  that 
area.  What  is  imperatively  needed  in  one  region  may  be  beyond 
the  needs  of  another.  The  ideal  must  be  efficiency  in  every  area 
which  is  entered,  but  efficiency  measured  in  terms  of  each  area. 

III.    Specific  Types  of  Education 

604.  With  a  view  both  to  the  adequate  staffing  of  schools 
with  efficient  teachers  and  to  the  increase  of  Chinese  participation 
in,  and  control  of,  the  Christian  educational  system,  determined 
effort  should  be  made  to  build  up  schools  for  the  training  of 
teachers  and  directors  of  education.  The  teacher  is  an  indispens- 
able factor  in  the  whole  missionary  enterprise. 

605.  While  the  Christian  forces  can  never  undertake  any 
large  part  of  the  work  of  elementary  education,  they  should  see 
to  it  that  all  the  work  that  they  do  in  this  field  is  of  the  highest 
possible  quality  and  in  the  highest  degree  contributory  to  the  de- 
velopment of  an  effective  Christianity  in  China.  To  this  end  em- 
phasis should  be  laid  on  the  training  of  teachers,  the  provision  of 
supervisors,  and  the  establishment,  in  each  region  or  district  of 
model  schools,  which  may  serve  to  stimulate  the  creation  of  many 
others  of  a  similar  kind.  Support  of  elementary  education  by  the 
Chinese,  without  cost  to  the  Mission  Boards  except  for  general 


368  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

guidance  and  advice,  should  be  attained  as  rapidly  as  practicable, 
but  without  sacrifice  of  the  quality  of  the  education  given. 

606.  Special  emphasis  should  be  laid,  in  the  immediate  future, 
upon  the  development  of  strong  middle  schools  with  occupational 
courses.  While  not  neglecting  those  studies  which  develop  char- 
acter and  enrich  personality  such  courses  should  prepare  students 
for  a  definite  occupation.  The  dependable  laity  of  the  Christian 
church  will  come  mainly,  neither  from  the  elementary  schools 
nor  from  the  university,  but  from  the  middle  schools.  Pupils 
who  do  not  reach  this  level  of  education  will  scarcely  be  prepared 
to  be  leaders.  Most  of  those  who  go  beyond  the  middle  schools 
will,  for  the  present  at  least,  join  the  professional  classes.  The 
backbone  of  the  church  will  come  from  the  middle  school  and 
the  majority  of  its  pupils  will  complete  their  school  education  in 
it.  When  we  add  to  this  that  the  leaders  of  the  Christian  com- 
munity at  large,  its  educators  and  moulders  of  public  opinion,  wiH 
come  from  the  higher  institutions  and  must  of  necessity  pass 
through  the  middle  school,  and  that  the  qualified  teachers  of  ele- 
mentary schools  will  also  come  from  schools  of  middle  school 
grade,  whatever  their  precise  name,  it  is  evident  that  the  main- 
tenance of  the  right  kind  and  number  of  middle  schools  is  in  a 
very  true  sense  the  center  of  the  educational  problem.  It  is  prob- 
able that  no  part  of  the  whole  task  has  received  so  little  attention 
in  proportion  to  its  importance. 

607.  These  facts  indicate  that  while  preparation  for  college 
should  be  adequately  provided  for  it  should  not  dominate  the  de- 
velopment of  middle  schools.  As  a  whole  they  should  emphasize 
preparation  for  the  various  occupations  in  which  students  will 
engage. 

608.  The  foremost  leaders  of  the  church,  its  ministers, 
writers,  educators,  physicians  and  statesmen,  must  come  from,  or 
pass  through,  the  colleges.  A  sufficient  number  of  institutions  of 
higher  learning,  permeated  with  the  Christian  spirit  and  dealing 
with  the  higher  areas  of  thought  from  a  Christian  point  of  view, 
are  indispensable  for  the  creation  of  a  strong  Christian  commun- 
ity.    To  be  effective  these  institutions  must  be  few  in  number  in 


SUMMARY  369 

order  that  each  may  have  an  adequate  staff  of  able  teachers,  may 
be  provided  with  the  equipment  necessary  for  thorough  work  and 
may  be  able  to  pay  adequate  salaries.  The  policy  of  founding 
colleges  in  many  centers  was  a  natural  one  in  the  past,  but  its 
continuance  under  the  new  conditions  created  by  the  development 
of  government  education  would  inevitably  mean  weakness  and  de- 
feat. The  policy  of  the  Christian  forces  must  now  be  to  concen- 
trate higher  education  in  a  few  centers,  and  to  maintain  thor- 
oughly strong  institutions  at  these  points. 

609.  The  first  two  years  of  the  college  or  university  course 
(following  twelve  years  of  study  in  elementary  and  middle  schools, 
in  accordance  with  the  plan  probably  about  to  be  adopted  by  the 
government)  may,  for  convenience,  be  called  the  junior  college, 
the  higher  years  the  senior  college.  Although  occupational  courses 
should  be  provided  in  all  grades  of  schools  from  the  junior  middle 
school  up,  higher  professional  work  should,  in  general,  commence 
at  the  beginning  of  the  senior  college  and  continue  for  periods 
varying  from  one  to  five  years,  according  to  the  requirements  of 
the  profession  for  which  the  student  is  preparing,  and  his  own 
aptitude. 

610.  In  the  field  of  higher  professional  education  the  Chris- 
tian forces  should  work  in  those  departments  in  which  the  incul- 
cation of  the  Christian  spirit  and  point  of  view  are  an  essential 
element  of  the  education  itself.  This  principle  necessitates  higher 
schools  or  departments  of  theology,  physical  and  biological  science, 
social  science  and  social  service,  literature,  education,  commerce 
and  industry,  social  and  political  science  (including  law  from  a 
constructive  point  of  view),  and  medicine.  The  inclusion  in  the 
Christian  system,  of  schools  less  directly  related  to  the  inculca- 
tion and  application  of  Christian  principles  is  justified  to  the  de- 
gree to  which  they  contribute  to  the  main  purpose  of  Christian 
education,  and  to  the  extent  to  which  the  means  are  available  for 
their  development. 

611.  The  training  of  men  for  various  forms  of  work  in  the 
Christian  ministry  is  a  matter  of  supreme  importance.  A  course 
of  study  adapted  to  prepare  men  for  the  most  responsible  positions 


370  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

should  be  provided  in  one  school.  This  school  should  serve  for 
all  China.  A  shorter  course  for  those  who  have  completed  two 
years  of  college  work,  and  other  courses  for  those  who  have  had 
only  a  middle  school  preparation,  should  be  provided  at  a  limited 
number  of  schools.  A  few  well-staflfed  schools  will  meet  the  sit- 
uation far  better  than  many  understaffed  institutions.  Definite 
effort  should  be  made  to  induce  more  men  to  prepare  for  the 
ministry. 

612.  Religious  education,  in  the  sense  of  organized  effort  to 
give  such  instruction  and  training  as  shall  inform  the  mind  in 
respect  to  morals  and  religion,  secure  conversion,  and  develop 
character,  is  a  vitally  important  element  of  Christian  education. 
Neither  in  Christian  lands,  nor  on  the  mission  field,  have  the  prin- 
ciples and  methods  of  such  education  been  at  all  adequately  dis- 
covered. Progress  in  this  field  lags  behind  that  in  almost  every 
other  department  of  education.  Mission  schools  fail  oftener  here 
than  in  mathematics  or  science.  To  discover  how  to  bring  to 
bear  upon  the  child  in  school,  church,  and  home,  the  influences 
most  conducive  to  his  highest  religious  and  moral  development  is 
a  task  which  calls  for  earnest  and  continuous  study  in  China  as  in 
America  and  England.  In  this  study  account  must  be  taken  of  all 
the  conditions  that  affect  the  life  of  children  and  youths  in  China. 

613.  Hospitals  and  medical  schools  were  for  a  long  time  the 
most  notable  expression  of  the  distinctly  philanthropic  aspect  of 
the  missionary  spirit.  Both  from  this  point  of  view,  and  from  that 
of  the  relief  given  to  the  sick,  they  have  been  of  inestimable  value. 
In  the  development  of  the  future,  three  facts  must  be  taken  into 
account.  The  raising  of  the  standard  of  medical  education  and 
of  hospital  requirements,  has  resulted  in  great  increase  in  the 
cost  of  both.  The  government  and  private  agencies  are  now  en- 
tering upon  the  field  of  medical  education  in  China.  Moreover, 
and  of  great  importance,  is  the  opening  up  of  new  opportunities 
and  necessities  for  the  expression  of  the  spirit  of  Christian  phi- 
lanthropy along  other  lines. 

In  view  of  these  facts,  the  policy  of  the  Christian  forces 
with  reference  to  the  relief  of  physical  suffering  should  include 


SUMMARY  371 

the  continuance  of  as  many  hospitals  as  can  be  adequately  main- 
tained, the  concentration  of  effort  on  a  very  few  medical  schools, 
well  staffed  and  equipped ;  the  adoption  of  the  policy  of  co- 
education in  medicine;  provision  for  training  health  officers  as 
well  as  physicians;  and  the  prosecution  of  health  work  in  school 
and  community,  especially  in  connection  with  the  most  adequately 
equipped  and  staffed  hospitals. 

614.  The  new  industrial,  commercial,  and  political  conditions 
which  have  developed  in  China  within  recent  years  call  for  an 
enlargement  of  the  horizon  of  Christian  education  and  in  some 
cases  for  a  transfer  of  emphasis.  The  critical  situation  in  the 
field  of  industry  and  commerce,  where  the  worst  mistakes  of  the 
western  world  are  being  repeated,  call  for  a  new  emphasis  on  re- 
search by  the  Christian  educational  forces  with  a  view  to  the  dis- 
covery of  a  method  of  conducting  industry  and  commerce  on  Chris- 
tian principles  and  at  the  same  time  with  financial  profit.  Such 
research  will  in  turn  furnish  the  necessary  basis  for  determining 
the  curriculum  and  methods  of  schools  in  which  men  may  be 
trained  for  positions  of  responsibility  in  industrial  and  commer- 
cial enterprises. 

The  need  of  great  improvement  in  the  conditions  of  rural 
life,  for  the  sake  both  of  the  progress  of  the  church  and  the  wel- 
fare of  the  nation,  call  for  earnest  attention  to  the  problems  of 
rural  education,  especially  with  reference  to  the  improvement  of 
the  farming  village. 

The  importance  to  China  of  a  healthy  political  life,  char- 
acterized on  the  one  hand  by  patriotism  and  the  other  by  a  regard 
for  equity  and  friendship  between  nations,  together  with  the  neces- 
sity for  many  internal  social  adjustments  in  consequence  of  en- 
larging contact  with  other  nations,  demand  larger  and  better  op- 
portunities for  the  study  of  law  and  political  science  under  the 
influence  of  Christian  ideals. 

The  extent  to  which  and  the  methods  by  which  these  de- 
partments of  education  can  be  organized  and  conducted  in  Chris- 
tian schools  demands  careful  but  immediate  study.  That  Christian 
education  must  take  account  of  them  is  beyond  doubt. 


372  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

615.  The  needs  of  both  the  rural  and  city  population  of  China, 
are  of  vital  importance,  and  both  must  be  served  by  the  Christian 
educational  forces.  The  contrasting  conditions  of  country  and 
city  must  be  kept  in  mind  in  planning  educational  w^ork  for  each. 
The  problem  of  the  elevation  of  life  in  the  farming  village  is  inti- 
mately related  to  that  of  the  creation  of  a  strong  Christian  com- 
munity. The  teacher,  especially  the  teacher  in  a  village  or  rural 
community,  should  be  not  merely  a  school  teacher,  but  the  organ- 
izer of  community  life,  closely  associated  with  the  church,  and  a 
promoter  of  community  health. 

616.  If  the  Christian  community  is  to  be  strongly  developed, 
and  one  of  China's  greatest  needs  to  be  met,  the  program  of 
Christian  education  should  include  provision  for  the  education  of 
adults.  Such  education  should  help  to  the  attainment  of  fuller 
life,  economic,  social,  political,  intellectual  and  spiritual,  and  be 
directed  especially  to  the  speedy  development  of  an  aggressive 
public  opinion  on  behalf  of  the  main  needs  of  China,  and  the 
achievement  of  adequate  social  self-direction. 

IV.    Resources,  Organization,  and  Support 

617.  There  are  four  ways  in  which  Christian  education  in 
China  can  make  its  contribution,  both  to  its  proximate  and  its 
ultimate  end, 

a.  The  bringing  in,  from  other  nations,  of  significant 
Christian  personalities;  men  and  women,  who  can  express  the 
Christian  message  and  can  illustrate  its  application  to  personal  and 
social  life. 

b.  The  creating  of  institutions  and  agencies  by  which  the 
publication  of  the  Christian  message  may  be  perpetuated,  and  its 
application  be  made  to  individual  and  social  development. 

c.  The  demonstration  of  methods  of  service,  both  for  in- 
dividuals and  institutions,  by  which  Christian  civilization  may  be 
advanced. 

d.  The  training  of  other  personalities  among  the  Chin- 
ese who  can  man  the  institutions,  expound  and  apply  the  message, 
and  make  the  Chinese  social  order  Christian. 


SUMMARY  373 

The  employment  of  these  methods  of  work  requires  the 
enHstment  of  competent  persons,  foreign  and  Chinese,  and  necessi- 
tates large  sums  of  money,  which  should  come  from  both  foreign 
and  Chinese  sources.  The  foreign  personalities  may  eventually  be 
withdrawn;  foreign  gifts  may  eventually  be  unnecessary;  the  insti- 
tutions, under  Chinese  management  and  support  will  remain. 

6i8.  The  purpose  of  Christian  education  can  be  most  effec- 
tively achieved  only  by  coordinating  the  entire  body  of  Christian 
schools  in  China  into  a  system  in  which  each  school  shall  take  its 
place  and  contribute  its  share  to  the  common  purpose  of  all.  This 
system  should  include  all  the  work  done  by  the  various  nationali- 
ties supporting  Christian  education  in  China,  both  Chinese  and 
foreign,  whether  these  nationalities  are  working  separately,  in  the 
sense  of  sustaining  schools  of  their  own,  or  imitedly  in  the  sup- 
port of  union  schools. 

The  governing  principle  of  this  system  must  be  volun- 
tary cooperation.  There  is  no  overhead  power  which  can  legis- 
late for  all,  or  compel  obedience.  Each  mission,  church,  and  in- 
stitution should  cooperate  fully,  according  to  its  special  part  in 
the  whole  plan,  but  should  retain  freedom  of  initiative  and  action 
within  the  bounds  of  loyalty  to  a  common  cause.  In  order  to 
secure  coordination  of  effort  and  function,  it  is  essential  that 
Mission  Boards  should  make  the  relationship  of  their  schools  to 
other  Christian  schools  in  the  same  region  the  primary  considera- 
tion, rather  than  their  relationship  to  the  schools  which  they  them- 
selves maintain  elsewhere. 

619.  Both  higher  and  lower  education  should  be  organized 
in  areas.  An  area  may  consist  of  a  province  or  of  a  group  of 
adjacent  provinces.  It  is  recommended  that  there  be  six  higher 
educational  areas,  viz:  North  China,  East  China,  Central  China, 
South  China,  West  China,  and  Fukien.  In  each  of  these  areas 
all  higher  education  should  be  organized  in  a  single  institution,  or 
in  a  university  of  the  coordinated  type.  The  lower  educational 
areas  may  be  identical  with  those  of  higher  education,  or  the 
higher  educational  area  may  be  subdivided  into  provinces  for 
purposes  of  lower  education. 


374  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

A  system  of  cooperation  should  be  arranged  as  between 
each  higher  educational  area  and  the  provincial  areas  within  it, 
and  among  all  the  areas,  higher  and  lower.  The  total  system  thus 
developed  should  be  able  to  speak  as  a  unit  to  its  whole  constitu- 
ency in  China,  Europe  and  America. 

620.  The  support  of  an  adequate  system  of  Christian  educa- 
tion calls  for  : 

a.  The  most  intelligent  and  effective  possible  use  of  all 
funds  received  from  abroad  or  contributed  in  China.  Neither  men 
nor  money  should  be  wasted  in  inefifective  methods  or  unnecessary 
duplication  of  efifort. 

b.  A  large  increase  of  funds  raised  abroad.  The  educa- 
tional task  which  now  confronts  China,  and  in  particular  the 
Christian  forces  in  China,  makes,  to  various  classes  of  people  in 
China  and  abroad,  an  appeal  deserving  of  a  larger  response  than 
it  has  hitherto  received.  The  opportunity  to  help  forward  the 
cause  of  Christianity  and  of  civilization  by  educational  methods  is 
one  that  should  commend  itself  strongly  to  foreign  residents  in 
China,  to  men  of  means  and  world-wide  interest  in  Great  Britain 
and  America,  and  to  the  Chinese  themselves,  and  offers  them 
opportunity  for  large  and  wise  investment  of  money. 

As  soon  as  business  conditions  in  Europe  and  America 
will  warrant,  a  vigorous  campaign  for  increased  support  should 
be  undertaken.  The  situation  is  a  challenge  to  Christian  countries 
of  the  first  magnitude. 

621.  Funds  may  properly  be  expected: 

a.  From  Mission  Boards  direct ; 

b.  Through  Mission  Boards,  from  such  sources  in  Eu- 
rope and  America  as  (i)  individuals,  (2)  schools  and  colleges, 
(3)   foundations,   (4)   firms  or  corporations; 

c.  From  similar  sources  in  China. 

622.  Christian  education  in  China  should  include  definite 
effort  to  develop  the  spirit  and  practice  of  giving  on  the  part  of 
the  Christian  church.  The  Christian  community  can  never  ade- 
quately commend  Christianity  to  China  until  it  has  learned  to 
practice  sacrificial  giving. 


I 


SUMMARY  375 

62^.  Grants  in  aid  from  outside  sources  should  not  be  ac- 
cepted under  conditions  which  would  abridge  the  right  of  the 
Christian  institutions  to  offer  reh'gious,  ethical  and  social  instruc- 
tion, or  to  control  the  character  of  such  instruction. 

624.  In  order  to  secure  greater  symmetry  and  effectiveness 
in  the  system  of  Christian  education,  and  specifically  to  strengthen 
what  might  otherwise  be  the  weak  spots  in  the  system,  it  is  desir- 
able that  an  increasing  proportion  of  the  funds  available  for  edu- 
cation be  under  the  immediate  control  of  the  Boards  of  Managers 
of  the  higher  educational  institutions  and  of  the  Provincial  and 
National  Boards  of  Education. 

625.  Money  alone,  however,  though  ever  so  largely  given, 
will  not  accomplish  the  task  or  meet  the  opportunity.  The  pres- 
ent situation  addresses  itself  to  a  larger  dlass  than  that  which 
has  usually  been  reached  by  the  missionary  appeal.  It  opens  a 
wide  door  of  opportunity  for  useful  life-service  not  only  to  evan- 
gelists and  others  with  a  theological  education,  but  to  trained  edu- 
cators and  to  experts  in  all  departments  of  science  pure  and  ap- 
plied, in  agriculture,  engineering,  poHtical  and  social  science  and 
in  the  organization  of  commerce  and  industry.  The  requisites 
for  all  such  men  are  the  scientific  attitude,  thorough  knowledge 
of  their  subject,  ability  to  teach,  interest  in  their  fellow  men,  and 
the  essential  Christian  spirit. 

626.  In  the  same  general  interest  and  furthermore  as  a 
direct  contribution  to  the  cause  of  Christian  education  in  China 
we  recommend  that  definite  plans  be  made  for  bringing  to  China 
some  of  the  ablest  British  and  American  public  speakers.  It  is 
suggested  in  particular  that  such  men  be  sent  to  Peking  and 
Shanghai  for  the  six  winter  months,  giving  courses  of  sermons  or 
addresses  calculated  to  arrest  the  attention  of  Chinese  and  foreign 
alike  and  focusing  thought  on  the  great  moral  issues  now  before 
the  world  and  on  the  fundamental  principles  of  Christianity. 
Such  men  may  be  either  preachers  or  laymen,  but  in  any  case 
should  be  taken  from  among  the  ablest  men  of  their  class,  and 
whether  they  speak  on  religion  or  not  should  represent  the  Chris- 
tian spirit  and  point  of  view. 


PART  VI 
REGIONAL  RECOMMENDATIONS 

627.  The  purpose  of  this  portion  of  the  Report  is  to  sum- 
marize, by  regions,  the  recommendations  made  in  the  previous 
parts,"  assembling  them  here  for  convenience  of  consultation, 

CHAPTER    I.    RECOMMENDATIONS    THAT    PERTAIN 
TO  ALL  REGIONS 

628.  The  main  recommendations  of  this  report  pertaining 
to  all  regions  and  referring  to  new  types  of  work  to  be  under- 
taken and  adjustments  of  existing  work  to  be  made,  are  as  follows : 

I.    Elementary  Education  ^ 

629.  A  Board  of  Education  should  be  established  in  each  of 
the  provincial  areas.     See  Sections  107,  147,  148. 

There  should  be  two  secretaries  of  each  Board  of  Edu- 
cation, one  Chinese  and  one  foreign.  ^ 

A  supervisor  should  be  appointed  for  each  school  dis- 
trict ;  each  supervisor  should  have  the  oversight  of  approximately 
twenty-five  schools. 

630.  At  least  one  model  school  should  be  established  in  each 
district. 

631.  In  conformity  with  the  proposed  six-year  primary 
course,  higher  primary  schools  should  become  part  of  six-year 
primary  day  schools,  or  be  continued  as  country  central  boarding 
schools,  or  be  reorganized  into  junior  middle  schools. 

632.  Additional  schools  for  girls  are  needed  in  very  many 
places  and  also  both  for  boys  and  girls  in  areas  at  present  unoc- 
cupied or  inadequately  supplied  with  Christian  schools. 

'See    Chapter    on    Elementary    Education,    Sections    1 19-155. 

377 


378  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

II.    Secondary  Education 

633.  Because  of  the  greater  strain  upon  finances  and  staff 
involved  in  the  new  six-year  middle  school,  the  number  of  schools 
of  this  type  should  be  strictly  limited.  Two  or  more  existing 
four-year  schools  might  be  combined  into  one  thoroughly  efficient 
six-year  school;  others  should  be  limited  to  the  three  years  of  the 
junior  middle  school.  There  should  be  a  strong  six-year  school 
for  boys  and  one  for  girls  in  each  provincial  capital. 

634.  The  number  of  junior  middle  schools  should  be  as 
large  as  possible.  They  should  be  arranged  in  groups,  each  group 
being  linked  up  with  a  strong  senior  middle  school. 

635.  All  schools  should  include  occupational  courses  of  the 
types  recommended  in  the  Chapter  on  Secondary  Education.  Sec- 
tions 166-178. 

636.  In  each  area  adequate  provision  should  be  made  for  the 
training  of  elementary  teachers,  both  men  and  women,  by  means 
of  first-class  teacher-training  schools,  or  strong  teacher-training 
courses  in  certain  middle  schools,  or  by  both  methods. 

637.  Bible  schools  should  be  combined  in  accordance  with 
the  recommendations  of  the  Chapter  on  Theological  Education. 
Sections  285-286. 

• 
III.    Higher  Education  ■ 

638.  There  should  be  in  each  area  one  university,  or  a  sys- 
tem of  colleges,  coordinated  by  an  advisory  council  looking  for- 
ward to  their  ultimate  incorporation  into  a  single  university.  Ail 
needless  duplication  should  be  elimininated.  The  advisory  council 
of  an  area,  and  the  association  of  Christian  colleges  and  universi- 
ties for  China  as  a  whole,  should  make  recommendations  con- 
cerning the  extent  and  type  of  work  to  be  done  by  each  insti- 
tution with  a  view  to  securing  the  widest  practicable  range  of  occu- 
pational courses  at  a  minimum  of  expenditure. 

639.  Senior  college  work  in  each  area  should  be  concen- 
trated on  a  single  campus  in  so  far  as  practicable.     Unless  able 


REGIONAL  RECOMMENDATIONS  379 

to  carry  an  adequate  staff  for  one  or  more  professional  courses 
and  to  secure  an  enrollment  of  at  least  eighty  students  in  senior 
college  courses,  a  college  should  restrict  itself  to  junior  college 
work.  Similarly  junior  colleges  should  consider  the  advisability 
of  becoming  strong  six-year  middle  schools. 

640.  Further  developments  in  higher  education  for  women 
should  be  in  some  form  of  affiliation  with  the  college  or  university 
of  the  area. 

CHAPTER  II.    RECOMMENDATIONS  BY  REGIONS 

641.  The  provinces  are  divided  and  grouped  under  the  six 
following  areas : 

North  China :  Manchuria,  Chihli,  Shantung,  Shansi, 
Shensi. 

East  China:     Kiangsu,  Chekiang,  Anhwei. 

Central  China :     Honan,  Hupeh,  Hunan,  Kiangsi. 

Fukien. 

South  China :     Kwangtung,  Kwangsi. 

West  China :  Kansu,  Szechwan,  Kweichow,  Yunnan. 

Honan  and  Kiangsi  are  placed  in  Central  China  be- 
cause of  geographical  considerations,  although  ecclesiastical  con- 
nections relate  certain  schools  in  each  to  North  China  and  to 
East  China  respectively.  Fukien,  were  it  not  for  difficulties  of 
topography  and  transportation,  would  be  included  in  East  China 
as  it  ultimately  should  be.  Although  the  four  western  provinces 
are  grouped  as  one  area,  their  wide  extent  and  the  absence  of 
steam  communication  make  it  difficult  for  Christian  education  to 
be  administered  there  as  a  unit.  In  Szechwan  alone  is  there  any 
widely  developed  system  of  Christian  schools.  As  the  work  in 
the  other  provinces  develops  it  will  be  necessary  to  consider 
whether  they  should  be  organized  on  purely  provincial  lines,  or 
whether  a  true  union  for  West  China  is  possible. 

I.  North  China 

642.  Elementary  Education. — See  I  A  above.     628-632. 

643.  Secondary  Education. — See  I  B  above.    633-637, 


38o  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

For  boys  the  institutions  in  Moukden  and  Taiku  and  the 
Peking  Academy  should  be  reorganized  as  six-year  middle 
schools ;  one  such  school  should  be  established  in  Tsinan  and  an- 
other in  Sian.  The  existing  normal  schools  should  be  combined 
into  one,  preferably  at  Tsinan.  For  girls,  six-year  middle  schools 
with  teacher-training  work  in  the  senior  middle  school  should  be 
conducted  in  Moukden,  Tsinan,  at  one  point  in  Shansi,  and  in 
Peking   (unless  a  union  normal  school  is  organized). 

644.  Higher  Education. — There  should  be  a  single  univer- 
sity open  to  men  and  to  women;  with  a  junior  college  in  Peking 
using  English,  and  one  in  Tsinan  using  Chinese ;  with  schools  of 
theology  in  Peking  taught  chiefly  in  English,  and  in  Tsinan 
taught  chiefly  in  Chinese ;  with  a  general  senior  college  course  and 
a  school  of  literature  in  Peking,  and  a  school  of  medicine  and  of 
education  in  Tsinan.  The  school  of  education  and  the  school  of 
theology  in  Tsinan  should  work  in  close  cooperation.  The  North 
China  Union  Women's  Medical  School  should  be  incorporated 
into  the  school  of  medicine  at  Tsinan.  Agriculture  (animal  hus- 
bandry) should  be  continued  at  Peking  contingent  upon  Chinese 
or  specially  provided  foreign  support.  The  Tientsin  Anglo- 
Chinese  College  should  be  continued  upon  its  present  standard. 

II.  East  China 

645.  Elementary  Education. — See  I  A  above.    628-632. 

646.  Secondary  Education. — See  I  B  above.    633-637. 

647.  Normal  Schools. — See  636  above.  The  provision  for 
training  elementary  teachers  in  this  area  is  most  inadequate.  It 
should  be  carried  on  both  for  the  Mandarin-speaking  district  and 
for  the  Wu  dialect  district.  (This  work  is  already  being  done 
for  girls  in  Soochow.) 

648.  Higher  Education. — The  ultimate  aim  for  this  area  is 
the  organization  of  an  incorporated  university  for  East  China. 
To  this  end  an  advisory  council  should  be  formed,  which  should 
coordinate  the  work  of  St.  John's  University,  the  University  of 
Nanking,  Soochow  University,  Shanghai  College,  Hangchow 
Christian  College,  Ginling  College  and  Nanking  Theological  Semi- 


REGIONAL  RECOMMENDATIONS  381 

nary.  The  university  to  be  thus  organized  should  include  a  col- 
lege of  school  administration,  general  senior  college  and  teacher- 
training  courses,  schools  of  theology,  a  school  of  agriculture,  a 
school  of  law  and  political  science,  a  school  of  commerce  and 
industrial  organization,  a  school  of  public  opinion  (extension 
work),  an  institute  of  economic  and  social  research,  and  a  school 
of  civil  engineering  and  architecture,  if  this  last  can  be  conducted 
without  expense  to  the  Mission  Boards.  No  junior  or  senior 
colleges,  either  for  men  or  for  women,  should  be  developed  in 
this  region,  in  addition  to  those  already  existing. 

III.  Central  China 

649.  Elementary  Education. — See  I  A  above.    628-632. 

650.  Secondary  Education. — See  I  B  above.    633-637. 

651.  Normal  Schools. — See  Section  636.  The  Union  Normal 
School  for  Boys  in  Wuchang  should  be  supported  by  the  various 
missions  in  the  area  and  training  for  male  teachers  should  be  cen- 
tered there.  Similar  plans  for  the  training  of  women  teachers 
should  be  undertaken. 

652.  Higher  Education. — A  university  should  be  planned 
for  Central  China  conducting  its  higher  work  in  not  more  than 
two  places  and  preferably  in  one.  There  should  be  one  junior 
college  on  the  university  campus,  and  possibly  one  other,  at  Chang- 
sha.  Theological  courses  of  senior  college  grade  might  be  con- 
ducted by  various  denominations  on  the  university  campus,  sharing 
in  many  ways  a  common  life;  the  Union  Seminary  in  Hunan 
should  be  reorganized  on  this  basis.  The  university  should  include 
senior  college  work  in  arts,  education,  library  management,  and 
commerce. 

IV.  Fukien 

653.  Elementary  Education. — See  I  A  above.    628-632. 

654.  Secondary  Education. — See  I  A  above.  633-637.  No 
senior  or  middle  schools  either  for  boys  or  for  girls  should  be 
developed  for  the  present  in  North  Fukien  outside  of  Foochow,  but 
the  number  of  junior  middle  schools  in  the  interior  should  be  decid- 


382  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

edly  increased.  In  South  Fukien  the  Anglo-Chinese  College  and 
Talmage  College  in  Amoy,  and  Westminster  College  in  Chuan- 
chow  should  become  six-year  schools  of  the  new  type  with  strong 
normal  courses  in  the  latter  two.  There  seems  to  be  room  for 
only  one  senior  middle  school  for  girls  in  Amoy,  and  it  should 
have  a  strong  teacher-training  course. 

655.  Normal  Schools. — See  Section  636.  The  present  pro- 
vision for  the  training  of  elementary  teachers  in  North  Fukien 
is  utterly  inadequate  in  view  of  the  large  number  of  elementary 
schools  and  the  size  of  the  Christian  community.  The  need 
should  be  met  in  Foochow  either  by  the  concentration  of  effort 
in  existing  union  normal  schools  for  boys  and  for  girls  or  by 
greatly  strengthening  the  normal  courses  in  the  middle  schools. 

656.  Higher  Education. — For  the  present  at  least  Fukien 
Christian  University  should  conduct  a  junior  college,  and  senior 
college  work  in  arts,  education  and  theology,  with  a  union  col- 
lege for  women  on  some  kind  of  affiliated  basis. 

V.  South  China 

657.  Elementary  Education. — See  I  A  above.    628-632. 

658.  Secondary  Education. — See  I  B  above.  633-637.  There 
are  strong  middle  schools  in  Canton  and  Hongkong,  but  there  is 
need  of  a  larger  number  of  middle  schools  of  junior  grade  at 
least  in  the  interior.  Special  attention  is  called  to  the  lack  of  mid- 
dle schools  in  Kwangsi  Province. 

659.  Normal  Schools. — See  Section  636.  The  Union  Normal 
School  for  Girls  in  Canton  should  be  strengthened,  as  should  be 
the  present  normal  courses  for  boys  in  middle  schools.  There  is 
special  need  for  at  least  one  strong  institution  preparing  ele- 
mentary teachers  in  the  vernacular. 

660.  Higher  Education. — Canton  Christian  College,  assisted 
by  the  missions  in  the  area  and  seeking  increased  Chinese  sup- 
port, should  maintain  junior  college  and  senior  college  courses  in 
education,  agriculture,  and,  perhaps,  commerce  and  social  science. 
The  college  department  of  the  Union  Theological  Seminary  should 
be  transferred  to  the  college  campus. 


REGIONAL  RECOMMENDATIONS  383 

661.  While  Christian  missions  have  availed  themselves  to 
a  limited  extent  of  the  privilege  of  cooperating  with  the  Univer- 
sity of  Hongkong  by  maintaining  hostels,  this  practice  could  be 
advantageously  extended,  especially  in  view  of  the  probable  in- 
crease in  the  number  of  students  from  Christian  schools. 

VI.  West  China 

662.  Elementary  Education. — See  I  A  above.  628-632. 
There  is  need  for  an  increase  in  the  number  of  schools  in  the  prov- 
inces of  Kansu,  Kweichow,  and  Yunnan. 

663.  Secondary  Education. — See  I  B  above.  633-637.  There 
is  no  Christian  middle  school  in  either  Kansu  or  Kweichow,  and  but 
one,  in  a  corner  of  the  province,  in  Yunnan.  A  six-year  school 
for  boys  and  on^  for  girls  should  be  established  in  each  of  the 
three  provincial  capitals. 

664.  Normal  Schools. — See  Section  636.  In  Szechwan  pro- 
vision is  now  being  made  for  the  training  of  teachers  in  the 
union  normal  schools  for  men  and  for  women  in  Chengtu.  In 
none  of  the  other  three  provinces  do  we  advise  separate  normal 
schools,  but  the  middle  schools  recommended  above  should  offer 
teacher-training  courses. 

665.  HigJier  Education. — West  China  Union  University 
should  develop  its  present  courses  in  arts,  science,  medicine,  edu- 
cation and  religion.  Higher  education  for  women  when  devel- 
oped should  be  either  in  a  coordinated  college  or  on  a  coeducational 
basis. 

VII.  National 

666.  The  scope  of  the  China  Christian  Educational  Asso- 
ciation should  be  enlarged  to  include  the  following  departments : 
(a)  Higher  Education;  (b)  Elementary  and  Secondary  Educa- 
tion; (c)  Religious  Education;  (d)  Extension  and  Adult  Edu- 
cation.    See  Sections  101-114. 

667.  An  Institute  of  Educational  Research  should  be  estab- 
lished at  an  early  date.     See  Sections  25 iff. 


i 


i 


PART  VII 

THE  COST  OF  EDUCATION  AND  THE  RELA- 
TIVE PRIORITY  OF  EDUCATIONAL 
ENTERPRISES 

CHAPTER  I 
THE  COST  OF  VARIOUS  TYPES  OF  SCHOOL^ 

I.    Preliminary  Observations 

668.  Plans  for  the  realization  of  many  of  the  recommenda- 
tions of  the  Commission  will  depend  either  upon  additional  funds 
or  wiser  use  of  the  money  now  in  hand.  If  better  educational  or- 
ganization be  effected,  and  greater  centralization  achieved,  there 
will  be  need  for  wise  planning,  involving  knowledge  of  local  con- 
ditions and  needs,  discriminating  judgment  as  to  priorities,  and  as 
exact  ideas  of  probable  cost  as  can  be  determined. 

669.  An  accurate  knowledge  of  the  costs  of  Christian  edu- 
cation in  China  is  hard  to  secure.  Books  are  kept  by  varying  sys- 
tems, if  at  all.  Large  items,  notably  foreign  salaries  and  inci- 
dental expenses,  are  commonly  ignored.  The  varied  systems  of 
educational  control  divide  financial  responsibility,  and  the  system 
of  subsidy  by  small  grants  takes  notice  of  only  a  portion  of  the 
real  cost.  Nor  is  there  any  systematic  effort  to  gather  financial 
data.     As  a  result,  the  financial  experiences  of  various  organ- 

*  In  this  chapter  all  sums  are  expressed  in  Mexican  dollars,  worth  approxi- 
mately fifty  cents,  gold,  or  two  shillings  at  normal  rate  of  exchange.  Calculations 
are  in  many  cases  approximate,  being  made  on  the  slide  rule.  None  of  the  data 
include    the    cost    of    food. 

385 


386  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

izations  are  isolated  one  from  the  other,  few  mission  adminis- 
trators having  the  advantage  of  being  able  to  study  intelligently 
the  income  and  expenditure  of  other  people  engaged  in  essentially 
the  same  sort  of  work. 

The  Commission  desired  to  include  in  its  report  exact 
estimates  of  the  probable  cost  of  its  various  recommendations  to 
the  end  that  wise  planning  might  result.  The  conditions  are  such, 
however,  as  to  force  an  abandonment  of  this  desire,  a  complete 
answer  to  this  question  involving  so  momentous  a  task  as  itself 
to  be  a  proper  subject  for  the  whole  inquiry  of  such  a  commis- 
sion. Instead  we  are  citing  a  few  cases,  more  or  less  typical,  as 
a  basis  of  discussion.  There  are  included  data  concerning  eighty- 
seven  village  schools,  eighty-six  middle  schools  (seventy-seven  of 
which  have  higher  primary  schools  attached),  eight  colleges  of 
liberal  arts,  and  a  few  professional  schools.  The  data  for  middle 
schools  and  colleges  cover  a  large  proportion  of  their  field  and 
in  our  belief  are  reliable.  The  data  for  village  schools  and  pro- 
fessional colleges  include  only  a  few  cases,  and  are  just  as  likely 
to  be  exceptional  as  typical. 

II.    Specific  Studies  and  Estimates 

670.  The  cost  of  one  system  of  village  education. 

Boys'  Lower  Girls'  Lower     Boys'  Higher     Girls'  Higher 

Items                                          Primary  Primary  Primary  Primary 

Number    of    Schools    48  22  11  6 

Number   of    Teachers    50  22  18  11 

Number    of    Pupils    1,103  343  197  31 

Number  Higher  Primary   Pupils  164  146 
Total   Annual    Salaries   of 

Teachers     $2,606.00  $1,125-00  $i,oq7.oo  $745.00 

Average    Cost    per    Pupil     $2.36  $3.27  $2.40  $4-21 

Average  Annual  Salary    $52.12  $5i-i4  $60.15  $67-73 

Median    Annual    Salary     $52.00  $45.00 

Paid    by    Mission    13%  78%  23%  80% 

671.  The  cost  of  middle  schools  and  attached  higher  primary 
schools. 

a.    From   the   questionnaires   collected   by   Rev.    H.   W. 
Luce  for  his  extensive  study  included  in  the  Survey,  eighty-six 


COST  OF  EDUCATION  387 

schools  were  selected  at  random,  the  only  qualification  being  com- 
pleteness of  the  data  desired.  These  are  quite  representative, 
being  located  in  the  provinces  of  Hupeh,  Chekiang,  Shansi, 
Szechwan.  Kiangsi,  Ahnwei,  Chihli,  Honan,  Hunan,  Kwangtung, 
Manchuria,  Kiangsu  and  Shantung.  Seventy-three  of  these 
schools  have  higher  primary  schools  attached.  The  data  consid- 
ered in  the  case  of  each  school  are :  the  amount  of  foreign  sup- 
port ;  the  amount  paid  in  tuition  fees ;  the  total  amount  of  foreign 
salaries  paid;  the  total  paid  in  Chinese  salaries;  the  number  of 
teachers,  Chinese  and  foreign,  for  each  type  of  school  sepa- 
rately; and  the  number  of  pupils  each  in  middle  and  higher  pri- 
mary schools. 

b.  It  was  unfortunately  necessary  to  make  some  statis- 
tical computations  to  reveal  facts  not  clear  in  the  data  as  gathered. 
In  no  case  were  the  data  divided  between  the  higher  primary  and 
middle  school,  showing  the  share  belonging  to  each  school  sepa- 
rately. The  cost  of  pupil's  food  was  often  included  in  running 
expenses.  The  complete  cost  of  the  foreign  worker  was  under- 
estimated, in  many  cases  salaries  being  omitted  and  in  all  cases 
no  allowance  being  made  for  many  of  the  additional  charges  that 
Mission  Boards  count  upon  as  certain.  The  computations  are  as 
follows : 

( I )  The  true  cost  of  the  school  was  estimated  by  adding 
the  total  cost  of  the  foreign  teachers,  the  total  cost  of  the  Chinese 
teachers  and  other  expenses  of  operation.  The  cost  of  foreign 
workers  was  estimated  from  careful  study  of  the  practice  in  these 
schools  and  from  examination  of  the  books  of  mission  treasurers. 
The  usual  estimate  of  the  true  expense  of  the  foreign  mission 
worker  is  twice  the  basic  salary.  Thus  if  married  men  are  paid 
$3,000,  the  mission  treasurers  estimate  that  it  will  require  another 
$3,000  to  cover  the  items  of  rent,  children's  allowances,  travel, 
additional  furlough  allowances,  summer  vacations,  medical  arid 
dental  attention,  education  of  children,  insurance,  and  emergency 
travel  and  hospital  care.  Some  mission  treasurers  estimate  a 
total  of  $8,000  for  districts  such  as  Shanghai.  In  the  case  of 
unmarried  men  and  women,  the  estimate  is  a  little  less  than  half 


388  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

that  of  the  married  men.  For  middle  schools  our  estimate  will 
be  less  than  these  figures,  because  of  the  large  numbers  of 
unmarried  workers,  short-term  teachers  and  part-time  assistants. 
For  these  reasons  our  estimate  of  the  true  cost  of  a  middle  school 
foreign  teacher  is  $2,500  in  boys'  schools  and  $2,000  in  girls' 
schools.  Thus  the  true  cost  of  foreign  teachers  for  each  school 
is  determined  by  multiplying  these  figures  by  the  number  of  for- 
eign teachers  reported.  The  cost  of  Chinese  teachers  was  de- 
termined by  averaging  the  cost  for  all  Chinese  teachers  in  the 
particular  school  and  multiplying  this  figure  by  the  number  of 
teachers  either  in  the  middle  or  higher  primary  school  as  the 
case  might  be.  It  was  quite  impossible  to  determine  the  true 
cost  of  expenses  of  operation,  such  as  fuel,  light,  janitor  service, 
repairs,  but  nine  schools  for  which  accurate  data  were  available, 
revealed  a  median  of  16.5  per  cent  of  the  reported  cost  of  for- 
eign and  Chinese  salaries.  Inasmuch  as  the  figure  for  foreign 
salaries,  including  more  than  mere  salary  charges,  here  used,  is 
greater  proportionately  than  the  figure  in  these  particular  schools, 
a  sum  amounting  to  ten  per  cent  of  salary  charges  is  added  to 
cover  expenses  of  operation. 

(2)  The  cost  of  the  school  divided  by  the  number  of 
pupils  gives  the  per  capita  cost. 

(3)  The  share  of  Chinese  support  was  determined  by 
comparing  the  total  of  tuition  fees  with  the  total  cost.  When 
the  tuition  fees  included  food  for  the  pupils,  as  was  often  the 
case,  a  sum  representing  the  annual  cost  of  food  multiplied  by 
the  total  number  of  boarding  pupils  was  first  deducted. 

c.  In  order  to  show  the  true  relation  of  all  facts  it 
would  be  better  to  give  them  all.  But  the  great  space  required 
and  possible  confusion,  to  say  nothing  of  difficulty  of  comparison, 
makes  this  unwise.  Instead  we  are  using  the  median,  quartiles 
and  extremes  to  measure  the  central  tendency  and  dispersion. 
Thus  in  the  following  series,  indicating  the  size  of  schools,  at 
first  appearing  at  random,  but  ranked  for  the  purpose  of  statis- 
tical treatment : 


COST  OF  EDUCATION  389 

121   pupils  100  pupils  66  pupils 

117  pupils  97  pupils  60  pupils 

114  pupils  92  pupils  42  pupils 

III    pupils  90  pupils  31   pupils 

no  pupils  88  pupils  28  pupils 

105   pupils  84  pupils  2y  pupils 

103  pupils  83  pupils  21   pupils 

100  pupils  79  pupils 

five  measures  will  give  the  reader  a  good  idea  of  this  series,  even 
if  the  original  figures  are  omitted.  Thus  the  lowest  is  twenty- 
one,  the  highest  one  hundred  and  twenty-one.  The  school  half- 
way up  the  line,  dividing  the  group  in  two  is  ninety.  The  half-way 
point  of  the  upper  half  is  one  hundred  and  five;  the  half-way 
point  of  the  lower  half  is  sixty.  Thus,  without  the  original  series, 
the  reader  can  imagine  in  a  series  of  schools  ranging  from  twenty- 
one  pupils  as  the  smallest  up  to  one  hundred  and  twenty-one  as 
the  largest,  that  one-fourth  have  one  hundred  and  five  pupils  or 
more,  one-half  ninety  or  more,  three-fourths  sixty  or  more  and 
that  half  of  the  schools  lie  between  sixty  and  one  hundred  and 
five.  The  measure  of  the  half-way  point  is  called  the  median, 
the  measure  of  the  upper  one-fourth  the  upper  quartile  (ex- 
pressed Q — 3),  the  measure  of  the  lower  one-fourth  the  lower 
quartile  (expressed  Q — i)  and  the  highest  and  lowest,  maximum 
and  minimum.  The  advantage  of  these  measures  is  that  the 
typical  or  usual  condition  is  shown  in  brief  space,  making  com- 
parison simple. 

672.    The  cost  of  higher  primary  schools 

a.    Six  higher  primary  schools  attached  to  large  boys' 
middle  schools. 

Number    of    pupils  Cost    per    pupil 

Maximum    174  Maximum    $134 

Q-3    151  Q-3    63 

Median     iii  Median     32 

Q-i    78  Q-i      12 

Minimum     57  Minimum     11 

Percentage    paid    from    foreign    sources 

Maximum      92%  Median     74% 

Q-3      78%  Q-I    35% 

Minimum   minus    70%    (pupils   paid   more  than   the  cost  of   the  school) 

Ratio    of    teachers    to    pupils 
Foreign   1:228  Chinese     1:16 


390  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

b.  Forty-seven  higher  primary  schools  attached  to  small 
boys'  middle  schools : 

Number    of    pupils  Cost    per    pupil 

Maximum    167  Maximum    $167 

Q-3    69  Q-3    • 58 

Median     ■  47  Median     35 

Q-i    30  Q-i    13 

Minimum     11  Minimum     3 

Percentage  paid    from    foreign    sources 

Maximum   116%      (school   paid   part   of   food  bill   in   addition) 

Q-3      100%  Q-I      T2% 

Median    92% 

Minimum    minus       9%      1    (pupils    paid    more    than    cost    of    school) 

«                      Ratio    of    teachers    to    pupils 
Foreign    1:112  Chinese     i:    17 

c.  Twenty-two  higher  primary  classes  attached  to  girls' 
middle  schools : 

Number    of    pupils  Cost    per    pupil 

Maximum    124  Maximum    $304 

Q-3    59  Q-3    64 

Median     36  Median     50 

Q-I    18  Q-I    IS 

Minimum     7  Minimum     8 

Percentage  paid    from    foreign    sources 

Maximum    117%      (school    paid    a    part    of    the    food    bill) 

Q-3      99%  Q-I      81% 

Median     90% 

Minimum    minus       2%      (pupils    paid    more   than   cost) 

Ratio    of    teachers    to    pupils 
Foreign    1:76  Chinese     1:12 


673.    The  cost  of  middle  schools 

a.    Twelve  large  boys'  middle  schools : 

Number    of    pupils                                                   Cost    per    pupil 
Maximum    257  Maximum    $182 

Q-3      198  Q-3    117 

Median     148  Median     94 

Q-I    117  Qi    79 

Minimum     107  Minimum     38 

Percentage    paid    from    foreign    sources 

Maximum      92%  Median     74% 

Q-3     78%  Q-i     ..»-.,,..  3S% 

Minimum   minus  70%     1    (pupils  paid   more  than  cost) 


COST  OF  EDUCATION  39i 

Ratio    of    teachers    to    pupils 
Foreign      i :  36  Chinese      1 :  14 

b.  Fifty-one  small  boys'  middle  schools : 

Number    of    pupils  Cost    per    pupil 

Maximum    97                  Maximum    $792 

Q-3 58                  Q-3    201 

Median     42      '            Median     135 

Q-i    22                 Qi    78 

Minimum     3                  Minimum   22 

Percentage  paid    from    foreign    sources 

Maximum    n6%  Median   92% 

Q-3      100%  Q-i      72% 

Minimum    minus  9%        (pupils  paid  more  than  cost) 

Ratio    of    teachers    to    pupils 
Foreign     i :  26  Chinese    1:10 

c.  Twenty-three  girls'  middle  schools : 

Number    of    pupils  Cost    per    pupil 

Maximum    90  Maximum     $640 

Q-3    36  Q-3    442 

Median     22  Median   180 

Q-I    6  Q-I    150 

Minimum   4  Minimum     , 26 

Percentage  paid    from    foreign    sources 

Maximum    117%      (school   paid   a   part   of   food   bill) 

Q-3      99%  Q-I      81% 

Median    90% 

Minimum    minus       2%      (pupils    paid    more    than    cost) 

Ratio    of    teachers    to    pupils 
Foreign      1:16  Chinese    1:13 

674.  Salaries  of  teachers  in  higher  primary  and  middle 
schools. — In  expressing  salaries,  central  tendencies  rather  than 
extreme  limits  are  cited,  these  data  being  more  expressive  of 
real  conditions.  It  is  unfortunate  that  only  averages  of  salaries 
were  given  in  the  questionnaires,  so  that  these  data  represent 
central  tendencies  not  of  the  salaries  themselves,  but  of  the  aver- 
ages of  the  salaries  for  each  school.  The  highest  and  lowest 
average  salaries  are  also  given  to  yield  an  idea  of  the  limits. 


39^  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

Monthly   Salaries   of   Teachers   in   Ninety-five   Higher 
Primary  and  Middle  Schools. — 

Large  Boys'  Small  Boys'  Girls' 

Middle  Middle  Middle 

Schools  Schools  Schools 

Teachers   of                             Highest      $85  $60  $50 

Science  and                      Q-3     66  35  40 

Mathematics                      Median    ••52  25  30 

Q-i    29  18  12 

Lowest     16  8  7 

Teachers  of                            Highest   $85  $70  $90 

English                                Q-3    75  50  46 

Median    48  30  30 

Q-i     30  22  20 

Lowest II  6  10 

Teachers  of                             Highest      $55  $50  $60 

Chinese                              Q-3   42  30  30 

Median    32  20  20 

Q-i     22  14  II 

Lowest   19  8  9 

Teachers  of                             Highest    $60  $40  $22 

Other   Subjects                 Q-3     42  2$  16 

Median    25  17  11 

Q-I   14  10  8 

Lowest   9  3  4 

675.  The  cost  of  higher  education. — The  data  for  the  cost 
of  higher  education  were  secured  from  questionnaires  sent  by 
the  Commission  to  a  few  of  the  higher  institutions  of  learning. 
Included  in  the  returns  are  data  from  St.  John's,  Manchuria, 
Canton  Christian,  Shantung,  Peking,  Nanking,  and  Hangchow 
colleges.  While  most  of  these  institutions  include  several  dif- 
ferent schools  and  colleges,  the  data  were  so  distributed  as  to 
approximate  the  actual  cost  of  each  college  or  school,  adminis- 
trative expenses  being  distributed  in  proportion  to  the  number  of 
the  foreign  stafT,  rather  than  in  proportion  to  enrollment.  The 
average  salary  of  the  foreign  teacher  is  $3,112.50,  that  of  the 
Chinese  teacher  $1,096.  These  figures  do  not  comprise  the  total 
cost  to  mission  budgets,  as  we  shall  show  later,  but  they  include 
more  of  the  cost  than  was  originally  shown  in  the  middle  school 
questionnaires.  The  food  of  students  is  not  included  in  the  fol- 
lowing figures. 


COST  OF  EDUCATION 

Senior  and  Colleges 

Junior  of 

Colleges  Medicine 

No.    of    institutions     7  2 

No.   of    students    1.051  124 

No.   of   foreign   faculty    . . .           63.65  24 

No.  of  Chinese  faculty    . . .           43-55  10 
Faculty  not  designated   ...           28 

Cost   per   student    $364.00  $1,639.00              $ 

Paid   from   foreign   sources          74.2%  97-5% 


393 


Colleges 

Colleges 

of 

of  Agri- 

Theology 

culture 

2 

2 

57 

46 

10.5 

6.65 

5-5 

1 

1,021.00 

$1,440.00 

100% 

34% 

676.    Summaries. — 

a.  Grouping  the  data  just  considered,  and  remembering 
the  original  limits  of  the  investigation,  some  striking  summaries 
may  be  drawn. 

In  the  various  types  of  schools  cited,  lo  teachers  teach: 


220  boys  in  village  primary  schools 

201  boys  in  village  higher  primary  schools 

192  boys  in  higher  primary  classes  in  small  middle  schools 

161  girls  in  higher  primary  village  schools 

156  girls  in  primary  village  schools 

124  girls  in  higher  primary  classes  in  middle  schools 

107  boys  in  large  middle  schools 

98  students  in  junior  and  senior  college 

89  boys  in  higher  primary  classes  in  large  middle  schools 

64  boys  in  small  middle  schools 

62  girls  in  middle  schools 

60  students  in  colleges  of  agriculture 

36  students  in  colleges  of  medicine 

35  students  in  colleges  of  theology 


b.    In  the  various  types  of  schools  cited,  $10,000  from 
all  sources  gives  one  year  of  schooling  to : 


4,230  boys  in  lower  primary  village  schools 
4,170  boys  in  higher  primary  village  schools 
3.330  girls  in  lower  primary  village  schools 
2,370  girls  in  higher  primary  village  schools 
316  boys  in  higher  primary  classes  in  large  middle  schools 
288  boys  in  higher  primary  classes  in  small  middle  schools 
200  girls  in  higher  primary  classes  in  middle  schools 
T06  boys  in  large  middle  schools 
74  boys  in  small  middle  schools 
55  girls  in  middle  schools 
29  students  in  junior  and  senior  college 
10  students  in  theological  college 
7  students  in  agricultural  college 
6  students  in  medical  college 


394  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

c.  In  the  various  types  of  schools  cited,  $10,000  coming 
from  foreign  sources  stimulates  further  support  giving  one  year 
of  Christian  schooling  to : 

32,600  boys  in  primary  village  schools 
18,220  boys  in  higher  primary  village  schools 
3,920  girls  in  primary  village  schools 
2,960  girls  in  higher  primary  village  schools 
422  boys  in  higher  primary  classes  in  large  middle  schools 
312  boys  in  higher  primary  classes  in  small  middle  schools 
155  girls  in  higher  primary  classes  in  middle  schools 
145  boys  in  large  middle  schools 
80  boys  in  small   middle  schools 
61   girls  in  middle  schools 
40  students  in  junior  and  senior  college 
24  students  of  agriculture 
10  students  of  theology 
6  students  of  medicine 

d.  So  far  as  the  original  data  are  concerned,  these  com- 
parisons are  highly  significant.  The  medical  education  in  one 
area  is  actually  5,000  times  as  expensive  per  student  as  the  pri- 
mary education  in  another  area,  considering  the  contributions  of 
the  missions.  This  may  indicate  a  just  relationship,  or  it  may 
mean  a  too  expensive  medical  education  or  a  too  cheap  primary 
education. 

e.  There  is  a  sharp  advance  in  the  cost  of  education  in 
the  higher  primary  classes  in  city  middle  schools  as  compared 
with  similar  primary  work  in  the  villages. 

f.  The  boys'  middle  school  enrolling  about  150  pupils 
is  much  more  economical  than  the  boys'  middle  school  one-third 
the  size.  Its  total  cost  per  pupil  is  one-third  less,  it  receives  a 
greater  proportion  of  the  expense  from  student  fees  and  it  pays 
its  Chinese  teachers  nearly  twice  as  much.  The  same  amount  of 
money  goes  nearly  twice  as  far  and  the  results  are  probably 
better.  Whether  there  is  a  causal  relation  or  not  is  not  estab- 
lished. 

g.  The  extraordinary  variations  in  the  cost  of  all  higher 
primary  work  and  of  girls'  middle  schools  is  due  to  variation 
in  the  numbers  of  the  foreign  teaching  staff.  Some  of  these 
schools  have  no  foreign  teachers  at  all,  one  has  two  for  15  stu- 
dents   (a  cost  of   $266  per   student),  and   one  higher  primary 


COST  OF  EDUCATION  395 

school  for  boys  has  two  foreign  teachers  having  exckisive  charge 
of  28  pupils. 

h.  It  costs  distinctly  more  to  educate  girls  than  boys, 
both  in  total  expense,  and,  with  one  exception,  in  mission  sub- 
sidy.    This  is  due  in  part  to  the  pioneer  stage  of  the  work. 

i.  The  higher  cost  of  theological  education  is  due  in 
part  to  the  small  number  of  students.  The  high  per  capita  cost 
of  agriculture  is  the  result,  in  part,  of  the  large  amount  of  re- 
search and  extension  work  carried  on  by  the  faculty. 

677.  Typical  middle  school  costs. — Another  method  of  sum- 
marizing the  data  given  above  is  to  describe  the  schools  that  fall 
within  the  limits  of  the  middle  fifty  per  cent  in  each  case.  These 
are  good  indications  of  present  cost. 

a.  The  large  middle  school  has  from  120  to  200  pupils, 
generally  about  150.  On  the  basis  of  150  students  it  costs  roughly 
from  $12,000  to  $17,000,  usually  about  $14,000.  It  has  four 
foreign  teachers  and  ten  Chinese.  The  tuition  charges  vary  from 
$17  to  $75,  the  medium  amount  being  about  $24.  This  means 
that  the  missions  furnish  from  $1000  to  $14,500,  usually  about 
$9,500. 

b.  The  smaller  middle  school  has  from  20  to  60  pupils, 
generally  about  50.  On  the  basis  of  50  students  it  has  two  for- 
eign and  five  Chinese  teachers,  costing  from  $4,000  to  $10,000, 
usually  about  $7,000.  The  tuition  charges  vary  from  nothing  at 
all  to  $70,  usually  about  $11.  This  means  that  the  missions  fur- 
nish as  much  as  $10,000  or  run  the  school  free  of  cost.  The 
usual  amount  furnished  is  $6,500. 

c.  The  middle  school  for  girls  has  from  5  to  35  pupils, 
generally  about  25.  On  the  basis  of  25  students  it  has  one  or 
two  foreign  teachers  and  two  Chinese,  costing  from  $3,800  to 
$11,000,  usually  about  $4,500.  The  tuition  charges  vary  from 
$1.50  to  $23,  usually  about  $18.  This  means  that  the  missions 
furnish  as  much  at  $10,000  or  as  little  as  $3,100,  generally  about 
$4,000. 

678.  Typical  costs  of  higher  primary  classes  attached  to  mid- 
dle schools. — 


396  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

a.  The  higher  primary  school  attached  to  the  large  mid- 
dle school  has  from  75  to  150  pupils,  usually  about  no.  On 
the  basis  of  no  pupils  it  costs  roughly  from  $1,300  to  $7,000, 
usually  about  $3,300.  It  generally  has  seven  Chinese  teachers 
and  half  the  time  of  a  foreigner.  The  tuition  charges  vary  from 
$2.50  to  $40,  the  usual  charge  being  $7.50.  This  means  that  the 
missions  may  furnish  as  much  as  $6,500,  or  may  run  the  school 
for  a  profit,  but  in  general  furnish  about  $2,600. 

b.  The  higher  primary  school  attached  to  the  small 
middle  school  for  boys  enrolls  from  30  to  70  pupils,  generally 
about  50.  It  usually  has  three  Chinese  teachers,  rarely  the  time 
of  a  foreigner.  The  total  cost  varies  from  $650  to  $2,750  on  the 
basis  of  50  pupils,  the  usual  amount  being  $1,750.  The  tuition 
charges  vary  from  nothing  at  all  to  $16,  the  usual  amount  being 
about  $3.  This  means  that  the  missions  may  furnish  as  much  as 
$2,600,  nothing  at  all,  or  make  money ;  in  general  the  amount  fur- 
nished is  $1,600. 

c.  The  higher  primary  school  attached  to  the  girls'  mid- 
dle school  has  an  enrollment  of  18  to  60  pupils,  generally  about 
35.  It  usually  has  three  Chinese  and  two  foreign  teachers.  The 
total  cost  on  the  basis  of  35  students  varies  from  $550  to  $2,200, 
generally  being  about  $1,750.  The  tuition  charges  vary  from 
practically  nothing  to  $6,  the  usual  charge  being  $5.  Thus  the 
missions  may  furnish  as  much  as  $2,200,  as  little  as  $400,  in  gen- 
eral about  $1,600. 

679.  The  "zone  of  safety." — These  estimates  of  higher  pri- 
mary and  middle  school  costs  indicate  the  present  tendencies, 
throwing  out  the  upper  and  lower  quarters  of  each  distribution. 
Other  things  being  equal,  the  larger  the  school,  the  lower  should 
be  the  per  capita  cost;  the  more  wealthy  the  community  served, 
the  higher  the  tuition  charge;  the  more  vocational  the  curriculum, 
the  higher  the  cost  and  the  higher  the  tuition  charge ;  the  lower 
the  cost  of  living,  the  lower  the  cost  and  tuition  charge;  the 
greater  the  financial  return  for  the  student  after  leaving  school, 
the  greater  the  tuition  charge ;  the  more  fashionable  the  school,  the 
greater  the  tuition  charge.     These  factors  all  tend  to  justify  vari- 


COST  OF  EDUCATION  397 

ation  from  the  central  tendency.  If  a  school  varies  distinctly 
from  the  norms  given,  then  careful  inquiry  should  be  made  for 
the  reasons.  The  school  may  be  too  meagre  or  too  expensive, 
or  the  present  standards  of  86  schools  may  be  wrong.  This  is 
the  reason  why  the  limits  of  the  middle  fifty  per  cent  constitute 
the  "zone  of  safety." 

680.    Typical  costs  of  higher  education. — 

a.  The  fact  that  the  Christian  universities  in  China 
have  practically  a  uniform  salary  schedule  simplifies  the  question 
of  estimating  college  expense.  If  we  determine  the  usual  salary 
paid  teachers,  the  amount  paid  in  items  not  covered,  and  the 
ratio  of  salaries  to  total  expense  for  various  types  of  institutions, 
we  may  estimate  the  probable  cost  of  institutions  of  this  grade. 

For  106.8  foreign  professors  in  Christian  colleges  and 
universities,  the  budgets  indicate  that  $332,414  was  paid  in  sala- 
ries. This  is  $3,112.50  per  person.  At  the  same  time,  73.05 
Chinese  professors  were  paid  $80,065  or  $1,096  per  person. 

Estimating  operating  expenses  in  the  institutions  repre- 
sented by  these  professors,  and  distributing  administrative  ex- 
penses on  the  basis  outlined  above,  we  were  able  to  determine  the 
per  cent  that  the  total  of  Chinese  and  foreign  salaries  bore  to  the 
total  expense.  For  junior  and  senior  colleges  of  liberal  arts  the 
median  per  cent  was  69.25,  for  colleges  of  theology  80,  for  col- 
leges of  agriculture  55.5,  and  for  colleges  of  medicine  39. 

The  ratio  of  foreign  professors  to  Chinese  is  about 
6  to  4  on  the  faculties  of  the  higher  institutions. 

If  we  can  determine  the  number  of  professors  needed 
for  a  college,  take  the  number  of  foreign  professors  and  multiply 
by  $3,112.50,  and  divide  by  .6925;  take  the  number  of  Chinese 
professors,  multiply  by  $1,096,  and  divide  by  .6925;  and  then 
add  to  this  figure  a  sum  equal  to  the  additional  expenses  of  mis- 
sion college  professors  not  noted  in  the  usual  budget,  such  as 
house  rent,  medical  attendance,  insurance,  summer  allowances,  we 
may  estimate  the  total  cost  of  the  college.  This  sum  is  estimated 
at  $1,200  for  the  foreign  members  and  $300  for  the  Chinese. 


398  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

Studying  the  enrollment  in  1 1  Christian  colleges  and 
universities,  we  estimate  that  of  every  loo  students,  we  may 
expect  42  in  the  first  year,  23  in  the  second,  18  in  the  third,  and 
17  in  the  fourth. 

b.  On  this  basis,  determining  the  probable  cost  of  a 
minimum  college  of  liberal  arts  of  100  students,  we  should  need, 
with  the  smallest  possible  program,  two  section*  in  the  freshman 
year,  one  in  the  sophomore  year,  one  in  the  junior  year  and  one 
in  the  senior.  This  would  require  a  total  of  100  teaching  hours. 
If  a  member  of  a  faculty  customarily  teaches  15  hours  a  week, 
if  the  normal  ratio  of  faculty  to  students  is  i  to  10  (see  above), 
ten  teachers  would  allow  150  teaching  hours,  or  a  margin  of  50 
hours  for  electives.  We  should  then  need  to  allow  a  margin  for 
absence  on  furloughs,  one  year  in  six,  and  for  language  study,  one 
or  two  years  at  the  beginning  of  work  in  China.  Twenty-five 
per  cent  additional  faculty  would  be  needed  to  provide  for  this. 
The  cost  for  this  college  would  be  determined  as  follows :  6  foreign 
professors  at  $3,112.50,  divided  by  .6925  (the  percentage  of  total 
cost  in  liberal  arts  college  borne  by  instruction),  to  which  sum  is 
added  $1,200  multiplied  by  6;  added  to  this  would  be  the  product 
of  $1,096  multiplied  by  4  (for  the  Chinese  staff),  divided  by 
.6925,  to  which  is  added  $300  multiplied  by  4;  to  which  is  added 
$3,1 12.50  multiplied  by  1.5  (25  per  cent  of  salary  of  foreign  stafif  to 
care  for  furlough  and  language  study).     The  total  is: 


$3,112. 

•  50 

X  6 

= 

$18,675. 

00 

;i8,67S- 

00 

-^  -6925 

— 

26,967 

.00 

126,967, 

00 
.00 

+  $7,200 
X  4 

34.167- 

00 

$34,167 

.00 

$1,096. 

$4,384. 

.00 

$4,384- 

00 

•^  .6925 

== 

6,331 

.00 

$6,331. 

.00 

+  $1,200 

= 

7.531- 

00 

7.S3I- 

.00 

$3,112. 

•50 

X   1.5 

Total 

4,669. 

00 

4,669. 

,00 

$46,367. 

00 

This  figure  of  $46,367  would  provide  a  minimum  college  for  100 
students  at  the  present  rate,  giving  instruction  and  maintenance, 
housing  for  faculty,  and  administration  expenses,  including  sala- 


COST  OF  EDUCATION  399 

ries  of  president  and  secretary.  It  would  not  include  food  for 
students.  This  charge  of  $464  per  student  is  higher  than  the 
norm,  due  to  the  small  number  of  students  and  the  inclusion  of 
charges  not  ordinarily  accounted  for  in  Christian  college  budgets. 

c.  With  a  college  of  150  students  we  should  expect  65 
students  in  the  first  year,  32  in  the  second,  27  in  the  third,  and 
25  in  the  fourth.  It  would  be  possible  for  this  institution  to  be 
handled  by  a  faculty  of  the  same  size  as  a  college  of  100  students; 
it  could  be  done  better  by  the  addition  of  one  instructor.  This, 
of  course,  would  not  allow  wide  election  of  studies  by  the  student, 
but  with  the  specialization  suggested  in  the  Chapter  on  Collegiate 
Education,  this  would  not  be  necessary.  Following  the  above 
method,  with  7  foreign  professors  and  4  Chinese  we  find  the  total 
figure  to  be  $52,862,  or  $352  per  student.  If  we  were  to  use 
6  foreign  instructors  and  5  Chinese,  the  total  amount  would  be 
$48,269,  or  $322  per  student. 

d.  For  a  liberal  arts  college  of  300  students  we  should 
expect  approximately  126  freshmen,  69  sophomores,  54  juniors 
and  51  seniors.  Allowing  a  minimum  of  4  sections  for  the  fresh- 
men, 3  for  the  sophomores,  2  for  the  juniors  and  2  for  the  seniors, 
this  would  require  220  teaching  hours.  Allowing  50  per  cent 
additional  for  electives,  this  would  require  330  hours  or  the  time 
of  22  teaching  members  of  the  faculty.  Estimating  13  foreign 
teachers  and  9  Chinese,  the  total  cost  of  the  institution  would  be 
about  $ior,ooo,  or  a  cost  of  about  $330  per  student.  If  this 
institution  were  part  of  a  university,  narrowly  restricting  its  work 
to  commerce,  teacher-training  or  the  like,  the  number  of  the  fac- 
ulty might  be  reduced  to  15  or  16,  making  the  cost  under  $250 
a  student. 

e.  The  college  of  agriculture,  doing  about  the  same 
amount  of  research  and  extension  work  as  at  present,  would  cost 
about  $72,000,  allowing  8  foreign  and  6  Chinese  professors  to 
teach  100  students. 

f.  The  college  of  theology  for  any  number  up  to  75 
students  would  cost  about  $30,000. 

g.  A  college  of  medicine   for    100  students,  and   hos- 


400  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

pital,  with  15  foreign  and  10  Chinese  professors  would  cost  about 
$177,000. 

h.  In  estimating  the  cost  of  women's  colleges  we  may- 
use  a  lower  base.  The  salary  of  women  is  about  $1,500,  and  $700 
additional  would  cover  the  extra  costs  to  Mission  Boards  not 
usually  included  in  college  budgets.  The  proportion  of  foreign 
teachers  is  also  greater,  being  about  4  to  i.  Thus  for  a  college 
of  100  students  with  a  faculty  of  8  foreign  women  and  2  Chi- 
nese our  calculations  would  be : 

$1,500.00  X  8  =  $12,000.00 

$12,000.00  ~  .6925  r=    $17,328.00 

$17,328.00  +  5.600  =    $22,928.00  $22,928.00 


$900.00    (salary    for    Chinese)  X  2  ^     $1,800.00 
$1,800.00  -4-  .6925  =:     $2,599.00 

$1,500.00  X  2  nr     $3,000.00  $5,599.00 

$28,527.00 

This  would  be  about  $300  per  student,  including  ten  members 
of  the  teaching  staflf,  a  president  and  a  secretary. 

681.  From  the  point  of  view  of  finance,  the  small  college  is 
always  expensive.  Probably  no  four  year  college  can  be  run 
economically  for  less  than  150  students,  nor  a  junior  college  for 
less  than  85.  A  careful  study  of  the  data  cited  here,  and  a  thor- 
ough working  over  of  the  budgets,  should  convince  the  admin- 
istrators of  Christian  colleges  and  universities  of  the  great  waste 
attendant  upon  conducting  so  many  small  institutions. 

682.  Probable  costs  of  higher  education. — The  estimates  of 
college  expense  noted  above  are  based  upon  present  practices.  It 
should  be  noted,  however,  that  if  Christian  higher  education  is 
to  maintain  its  lead,  expenses  must  increase.  Professional  edu- 
cation of  any  kind  is  costly.  New  equipment  must  be  added, 
libraries  augmented,  sections  multiplied.  This  will  demand  larger 
expenditure.  Foreign  and  Chinese  salaries  in  some  cases  must 
be  increased.  While  the  figure  of  $1,096,  plus  $300,  is  fair  pay 
for  services  rendered  by  many  of  the  Chinese  staff,  considering 
the  permanence,  security  and  costs  of  living,  it  nevertheless  re- 
mains true  that  highly  competent  men  cannot  be  retained  at  this 


COST  OF  EDUCATION  401 

rate.  One  government  institution,  giving  salaries  moderate  in 
comparison  with  other  government  higher  institutions,  pays  its 
best  men  from  $1,800  to  $2,640.  The  first-class  Christian  col- 
lege should  in  the  future  count  upon  having  its  best  Chinese  teach- 
ers of  such  a  high  order  as  to  be  entitled  to  about  $1,000  more 
per  man  than  is  now  being  paid.  Our  estimates  should  therefore 
be  advanced  about  10  per  cent  to  allow  for  increased  efficiency, 
and  about  $1,000  multiplied  by  the  number  of  Chinese  department 
heads,  to  care  for  this  increase. 

683.  The  reorganized  estimates  are: 

General     college     4  years  loo  students  $SS>ooo.oo 

General     college     4  years  150  students  62,000.00 

General     college     4  years  300  students  110,000.00 

Junior    college     2  years  85  students  37,000.00 

Senior     College    2  years  65  students  25,000.00 

Junior    college     2  years  200  students  70,000.00 

Senior     college     2  years  100  students  40,000.00 

Agricultural   college    ....  4  years  100  students  84,000.00 

Theological  college   2-3  years  75  students  36,000.00 

Medical  college 4  years  100  students  204,000.00 

Women's    college     4  years  100  students  34,000.00 

684.  The  danger  of  a  study  of  this  kind  is  that  the  university 
executive  or  the  board  of  trustees  shall  consider  wide  variation 
from  these  norms  as  a  sign  of  weakness.  Only  a  variation  that  is 
not  accounted  for  should  be  so  considered.  The  value  of  careful 
comparison  of  costs  is  not  the  securing  of  uniformity,  but  rather 
the  justification  of  ivise  and  the  elimination  of  unwarranted  dif- 
ferences. 

The  chief  obstacles  to  economy  are :  small  numbers  of 
students;  too  large  percentage  of  foreign  faculty  members;  unnec- 
essary multiplication  of  sections ;  several  weak  departments  when 
a  few  strong  ones  could  be  maintained ;  and  several  weak  colleges 
when  one  or  two  excellent  ones  could  be  provided. 

III.    Implications  of  this  Study 

685.  The  following  implications  may  be  derived  from  this 
study  of  college  finance : 

a.  There  are  too  many  colleges  at  present  supported  by 
the  Christian  forces  in  China.    Their  justification  must  rest  upon 


402  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

other  than  financial  grounds,  for  much  better  work  could  be  pro- 
vided at  less  cost  if  there  was  greater  unification,  not  to  say 
abandonment  of  some  of  the  enterprises. 

b.  The  practice  of  assigning  mission  members  to 
university  faculties  rather  than  appropriating  money,  paying  sal- 
aries through  the  usual  mission  channels,  is  expensive  in  the  long 
run  and  not  warranted  by  sound  finance.  University  executives, 
not  having  control  of  faculty  finance,  are  unable  to  distribute 
their  finances,  sometimes  having  plenty  of  men  but  not  enough 
money.  Thus  competent  Chinese  teachers  are  sometimes  lost  to 
Christian  universities  and  colleges,  because  sufficient  funds  are 
not  available.  The  financing  of  certain  large  middle  schools  con- 
nected with  higher  institutions  reveals  an  ingenious  method  of 
surmounting  this  difficulty  in  part.  The  missions  contribute  the 
foreign  faculty,  the  pupils  pay  large  tuition  fees  covering  more 
than  the  expenses,  and  the  profits  are  used  as  ready  cash  for  the 
higher  departments.  In  reality  it  is  a  conversion  of  men  into 
money. 

c.  The  notion  that  "I  would  found  an  institution  where 
any  person  may  study  an)'  subject,"  may  have  been  all  right  for 
Cornell,  but  it  is  an  expensive  ambition.  Too  many  institutions 
are  extravagant  in  having  too  many  electives  and  several  pro- 
fessors more  than  the  minimum  needed,  when  the  money  might 
better  be  spent  upon  books,  equipment,  better  salaries,  or  scholar- 
ships. Financial  consideration  would  demand  concentration  into 
a  few  sections  and  a  small  number  of  departments.  This  is  also 
sound  educational  policy. 

d.  The  recommendation  for  regional  universities  with 
rigid  concentration  of  work  is  sound  financially.  The  plan  will 
be  successful  only  to  the  degree  to  which  this  concentration  is 
used  to  reduce  sections  and  faculties,  allowing  the  boards  of  con- 
trol to  use  the  money  thus  released,  to  secure  better  equipment, 
libraries  and  teachers. 

686.  On  file  with  the  secretary  of  the  China  Christian 
Educational  Association  is  a  set  of  blanks  that  may  be  used  as 
a  guide  in  the  keeping  of  books,  that  better  financial  data  may  be 


COST  OF  EDUCATION  403 

available  in  the  future.  It  is  recommended  that  the  secretaries 
of  Christian  colleges  and  universities  study  these  blanks  and 
model  their  bookkeeping  upon  them. 

687.  It  should  be  carefully  noted  that  the  financial  data  in 
this  chapter  are  intended  to  give  the  actual  cost  to  the  missions  of 
the  educational  ivork  in  China,  omitting  only  the  cost  of  administra- 
tion at  home.  When  comparisons  with  data  in  any  particular 
school  are  made,  the  additional  costs  as  here  explained  should 
be  added.  Otherwise  the  first  reaction  to  these  estimates  will  be 
surprise  at  the  large  sums  involved. 

688.  If  the  data  cited  in  this  chapter  are  as  accurate  for  pri- 
mary schools  and  professional  colleges  as  they  are  for  higher 
primary  and  middle  schools  and  colleges  of  liberal  arts,  they 
should  furnish  food  for  thought.  Is  it  better  to  have  32,600  boys 
poorly  trained  in  village  schools  for  one  year,  143  boys  in  a  middle 
school,  61  girls  in  a  middle  school,  or  6  students  in  a  medical 
school?  If  small  middle  schools  are  expensive,  will  unification 
bring  better  results;  or  does  size  have  nothing  to  do  with  it? 
Shall  we  spend  more  money  for  higher  education,  when  so  many 
more  students  can  be  served  in  primary  schools?  Or  shall  we 
concentrate  our  efforts?  Does  the  inexpensiveness  of  primary 
schools  mean  weakness?  Does  the  relatively  high  cost  of  pro- 
fessional work  mean  efficiency?  What  should  be  the  norms  for 
all  types  of  work?  What  should  be  the  relative  proportion  of 
effort  in  each  grade  of  schooling?  We  can  raise  many  more 
questions  than  we  can  answer. 

689.  One  highly  important  service  of  the  proposed  Institute 
of  Educational  Research  will  be  the  gathering  of  accurate  data 
on  all  such  financial  problems  of  the  schools  as  we  have  here  been 
considering :  evaluating  and  interpreting  them,  and  presenting  to 
the  educational  authorities  the  conclusions  derived  therefrom.  It 
should  aid  materially  in  determining  the  educational  programs 
of  the  future. 


CHAPTER  II 

RECOMMENDATIONS  CLASSIFIED  ACCORDING 
TO  EXPENSE  INVOLVED 

690.  In  this  Chapter  and  the  following  the  recommendations 
of  the  Commission  in  the  body  of  the  Report  are  brought  together 
and  classified  in  two  ways:  (i)  according  to  the  probable  ex- 
pense involved  in  carrying  the  recommendations  into  effect,  and 
(2)  according  to  the  order  of  their  urgency. 

691.  In  the  present  Chapter  the  recommendations  are  grouped 
into  three  classes  according  to  the  increase  in  costs  involved.  The 
first  group  includes  adjustments  and  developments  which  can  be 
made  without  involving  any  additional  appropriations  by  Missions 
or  Boards.  The  second  group  includes  the  developments  which 
can  be  carreid  out  by  a  moderate  increase  in  appropriations.  In 
the  third  group  are  placed  the  advances  recommended  which  will 
involve  largely  increased  expenditures. 

All  of  these  developments  of  the  first  group  and  as 
many  as  possible  of  the  second  and  third  groups  should  begin  at 
once.    Otliers  must  necessarily  await  the  receipt  of  large  funds. 

I.    Developments  which  can  be  made  without  Increase 
in  Appropriations 

A.   General 

692.  A  provincial  board  of  education  in  every  provincial 
area.     See  Sections  107,  108,  148. 

693.  Officers  of  administration  for  each  provincial  board, 
including  two  secretaries,  one  Chinese  and  one  foreign. 

404 


RECOMMENDATIONS  ACCORDING  TO  EXPENSE         405 

694.  Supervisors  for  each  district.     See  Sections  151  b,  246. 
The   expenses   involved    in  these   three   sections  can   be 

met  (i)  by  fee  or  registration  by  the  schools;  (2)  by  allocating 
missionaries  already  on  the  field  and  Chinese  teachers  now  em- 
ployed, to  the  important  administrative  positions;  (3)  by  read- 
justment in  present  school  appropriations,  through  closing  weak 
and  inefficient  schools  or  decreasing  the  grants-in-aid. 

The  missions  and  Boards  are  reminded  that  the  appro- 
priations necessary  to  cover  the  salary  and  expenses  of  a  new  mis- 
sionary would  be  sufficient  to  cover  the  salaries  and  expenses  of 
five  or  more  trained  Chinese  supervisors. 

B.    Elementary  Education 

695.  Model  schools. — The  missions  can  make  no  larger  con- 
tribution in  the  field  of  elementary  education  than  by  the  estab- 
lishment of  model  schools.  This  can  be  done  by  the  concentration 
of  a  considerable  portion  of  mission  appropriations  for  the  schools 
of  a  district  upon  one  model  school.  This  should  stimulate  local 
initiative  and  should  lead  to  the  contribution  of  much  larger  funds 
from  the  Chinese  Christian  community.    See  Section  153. 

C.    Secondary  Education 

696.  The  organisation  of  middle  schools. — Some  of  the  pres- 
ent junior  colleges  and  some  of  the  four  year  middle  schools  con- 
nected with  colleges  should  be  reorganized  into  six  year  middle 
schools.  In  the  one  case  buildings  and  faculty  will  be  already 
provided  and  no  increase  in  cost  will  be  required.  Any  possible 
reduction  in  expenses,  however,  should  be  absorbed  in  the  cost 
of  improvement  in  quality.  In  the  other  case  the  two  years  which 
are  added  should  be  taken,  one  from  the  higher  primary  school 
and  one  from  the  junior  college,  except  where  the  total  college 
course,  including  all  years  above  the  middle  school,  is  but  four 
years  in  length,  in  which  case  one  year  should  be  taken  from  the 
higher  primary  school  and  one  year  added  outright.  Adjustments 
of  appropriations  should  be  possible  thus  obviating  increase  in 


4o6  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

costs.  Some  urban  schools  could  secure  larger  local  support  with- 
out compromising  their  Christian  character,  and  mission  funds 
thus  released  could  be  used  for  other  schools. 

697.  Normal  courses  in  middle  schools. — Normal  courses 
should  be  introduced  into  many  middle  schools.  Even  though  large 
increases  were  involved  the  immediate  provision  for  adequate 
training  of  primary  teachers  would  be  justified  by  the  urgency  of 
the  need.  In  some  cases,  however,  the  additional  stall  required 
for  a  normal  course  in  an  existing  middle  school  could  be  met 
by  adjustments  or  at  least  at  small  additional  cost.  It  might  be 
possible  to  create  a  union  normal  school  without  added  expense 
by  combining  two  middle  schools  into  one,  utilizing  one  of  the 
plants  thus  released,  and  securing  the  necessary  additional  members 
of  the  staff  by  allocation  of  missionaries  from  other  tasks. 

698.  Junior  middle  schools. — A  marked  increase  in  the  num- 
ber of  junior  middle  schools  is  recommended.  Many  of  the 
present  higher  primary  schools  can  be  raised  to  junior  middle 
schools  with  small  additional  cost,  and  this  can  be  met  by  reduc- 
ing some  of  the  present  four  year  middle  schools  to  junior  middle 
schools  and  by  replacing  some  missionary  teachers  by  Chinese. 
Many  junior  middle  schools  can  be  maintained  without  seeking 
larger  appropriations  from  the  Boards. 

699.  Occupational  courses  in  middle  schools. — Adjustments 
in  courses  now  offered  would  make  possible  additions  to  the  staff 
required  for  the  introduction  of  such  occupational  courses  as  do 
not  need  expensive  plant  or  apparatus. 

D.    Higher  Education 

700.  Reorganization. — With  a  view  to  improving  the  quality 
and  effectiveness  of  the  education  given  and  to  further  economy 
through  the  elimination  of  costly  duplication  of  work,  the  Com- 
mission recommends  the  reorganization  of  existing  colleges  and 
universities  in  North  China,  East  China,  and  Central  China,  into 
regional  universities.  This  will  not  involve  any  immediate  addi- 
tional expense,  so  far  as  existing  plants  and  faculties  are  con- 


RECOMMENDATIONS  ACCORDING  TO  EXPENSE  407 

cerned.  Any  funds  which  are  conserved  through  the  reorganiza- 
tion sholild  be  used  in  enlarging  the  hbraries,  equipping  the 
laboratories,  or  securing  better  trained  teachers.  The  plan  assumes 
the  carrying  out  of  present  building  programmes  in  so  far  as  they 
are  endorsed  by  the  senates  or  advisory  councils  of  the  respective 
areas. 

11.    Developments  which  can  he  made  by  Moderate  Increase 
in  Appropriations 

A.    Elementary  Education 

701.  Additions  to  the  present  appropriations  for  elementary 
schools  should  be  applied  to  increasing  and  developing  model 
schools  in'  as  many  districts  as  possible,  in  securing  additional 
supervisors,  and  in  training  teachers  in  service. 


B.    Secondary  Education 

702.  Reorganisation  of  middle  schools. — While  some  six  year 
middle  schools  can  be  established  by  reorganization  as  suggested 
in  Section  696,  yet  any  increase  in  the  number  of  schools  of  this 
type  will  certainly  require  additional  funds.  They  should  not, 
however,  prove  excessively  large,  since  the  number  of  trained 
Chinese  teachers  available  is  increasing,  and  the  number  of  mis- 
sionary teachers  will  not  need  to  be  enlarged. 

703.  Normal  schools. — While  possibly  a  few  normal  schools 
can  be  organized  and  normal  courses  can  be  introduced  into  many 
middle  schools  without  much  increase  in  cost,  as  set  forth  in 
Section  697,  yet  any  adequate  effort  to  meet  the  urgent  demands 
of  the  situation  will  require  increased  appropriations.  Normal 
school  work  is  always  expensive,  but  there  can  be  no  more  profit- 
able investment  of  funds. 

704.  Junior  middle  schools. — It  is  suggested  in  Section  698 
that  many  junior  middle  schools  can  be  established  without  in- 
creased appropriations.  We  must  face  the  fact,  however,  that 
the  establishment  of  some  of  these  schools  will  necessarily  involve 


4o8  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

new  appropriations  until  they  are  well  under  way,  when  increased 
receipts  from  tuition  should  care  for  them. 

705.  Occupational  courses  in  middle  schools. — While  some 
readjustments  will  make  possible  additions  to  the  staff  without 
serious  additional  cost,  the  general  introduction  into  all  middle 
schools  of  occupational  courses  will  involve  increased  expense. 
Investment  at  this  point,  however,  is  essential. 

706.  Bible  schools. — The  Bible  training  schools  are  relatively 
inexpensive,  but  the  uniting  of  several  schools  in  one  would  often 
result  in  added  efficiency  with  little  increase  of  cost. 


C.    Higher  Education 

707.  Developments  at  existing  institutions. — The  Commis- 
sion recommends  that  at  several  points  new  developments  be  made 
which  will  add  to  the  efficiency  of  the  colleges.  All  of  these  can 
be  undertaken  at  small  additional  Cost. 

(i)  A  school  of  literature  for  the  training  of  writers 
should  be  established  at  Peking  University. 

(2)  The  school  of  law  at  Shanghai  should  be  developed 
into  a  school  of  law  and  political  science,  as  a  department  of  the 
regional  university. 

(3)  A  department  of  commerce  and  social  science  should 
be  inaugurated  at  Canton  Christian  College,  and  this  institution 
which  has  hitherto  been  financed  independently  of  the  Boards 
should  henceforth  receive  their  financial  support. 

(4)  The  initial  steps  toward  the  inauguration  of  a  union 
university  of  Central  China  should  be  taken  in  the  near  future. 

(5)  The  West  China  Union  University  should  under- 
take the  higher  education  of  women. 

(6)  Extension  work,  especially  for  adults  should  be 
developed  at  several  points. 


RECOMMENDATIONS  ACCORDING  TO  EXPENSE         409 

III.  Developments  which  will  involve  Largely  Increased 
Expenditures 

A.    General 

708.  The  China  Christian  Educational  Association.  If  the 
plans  for  advance  which  the  Commission  is  recommending  are  to 
be  carried  out,  it  is  essential  that  the  China  Christian  Educational 
Association  be  strengthened  and  its  staff  considerably  increased. 

709.  The  Institute  of  Educational  Research.  The  Commis- 
sion has  pointed  out  (Sections  100,  251-258)  the  necessity  of 
establishing  an  institution  which  shall  make  careful  inevestigation 
of  educational  problems  as  the  basis  for  the  future  educational  pro- 
gram.   This  institution  stands  second  in  the  list  of  large  advances. 

710.  The  Institute  of  Economic  and  Social  Research.  In 
Section  377  the  Commission  has  pointed  out  the  necessity  of  the 
Christian  forces  making  careful  investigation  of  the  economic 
developments  in  China  in  order  that  the  new  social  order  may  be 
dominated  by  Christian  ideals.  An  institute  to  undertake  such 
study  is  needed  at  once. 

B.    Elementary  Education 

711.  Nezv  elementary  schools.  New  schools  should  be 
opened,  especially  in  unoccupied  or  sparsely  occupied  areas.  Those 
schools,  naturally,  call  for  a  larger  proportion  of  aid  from  the  cen- 
tral funds  than  those  in  the  areas  that  have  been  cultivated  for  a 
longer    time.      Among   the    relatively    unoccupied    areas   are    the 

•provinces  of  Kansu,  Kwangsi,  Yunnan,  Kweichow,  and  Shensi. 
The  provision  of  educational  facilities  for  girls  in  most  parts 
of  the  country  is  still  far  behind  that  for  boys,  and  many  more 
schools  will  be  needed. 

C.    Secondary  Education 

712.  New  six-year  middle  schools.  A  number  of  strong 
middle  schools  in  strategic  cities  are  called  for,  and  their  establish- 


410  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

ment  will  require  large  initial  expense.  Especially  in  a  new  center  it 
is  desirable  to  commence  well,  with  first-class  teachers  and  good 
equipment.  The  cost  of  later  developments  will  probably  be  offset 
by  increased  returns  from  tuition  fees. 

New  schools,  both  for  boys  and  girls,  are  imperatively 
needed  in  several  provinces. 

713.  Agricultural  and  industrial  arts  schools.  The  Commis- 
sion recommends  the  establishment  at  an  early  date  of  at  least 
two  schools  of  this  type.  Though  expensive,  they  are  urgently 
needed. 

714.  New  normal  schools.  Some  of  the  normal  schools 
which  we  have  recommended  must  be  of  a  higher  type  and  will 
involve  comparatively  large  expense,  but  their  inauguration  is  one 
of  the  pressing  needs  of  the  Christian  educational  system. 

715.  Junior  middle  schools.  While  some  such  schools  can  be 
provided  without  new  appropriations  (Section  698),  and  some 
with  small  additional  appropriations  (Section  705),  yet  the  in- 
stallation of  an  adequate  number  will  probably  exceed  these 
limits. 

D,    Higher  Education 


716.  The  development  of  existing  institutions.  The  recom- 
mendations of  the  Commission  in  the  field  of  higher  education  look 
not  to  the  increase  in  the  number  of  colleges  or  universities,  but  to 
the  union  or  coordination  of  existing  institutions  and  to  the 
strengthening  of  their  work.  The  advances  recommended,  which 
call  in  a  limited  number  of  cases  for  the  creation  of  new  depart- 
ments of  work,  but  for  the  most  part  for  the  improvement  of 
those  which  already  exist,  are  discussed  in  detail  in  Chapters 
III-XIV  of  Part  II,  and  are  listed  below  in  Section  717. 


CHAPTER  III 

RECOMMENDATIONS  INVOLVING  LARGE  EXPENSE 
.       CLASSIFIED      ACCORDING      TO      THE      ORDER 
OF  URGENCY 

717,  In  this  Chapter  the  recommendations  of  the  Commis- 
sion for  the  inauguration  of  new  work  which  will  involve  large 
expenditures  are  summarized  in  the  order  in  which  they  are  recom- 
mended for  preferential  development.  As  in  the  previous  Chap- 
ter they  are  divided  into  educational  groups.  The  groups  stand  in 
the  order  of  preference  as  groups  and  the  items  in  each  group  are 
likewise  in  order  of  preference  within  the  group,  but  the  devel- 
opment of  work  in  the  various  groups  will  necessarily  be  carried 
on  to  a  considerable  extent  simultaneously. 

I.    General 

1.  The   strengthening   of   the    China   Christian   Educa- 
tional Association. 

2.  The   establishment   of    an    Institute   of    Educational 
Research. 

3.  The  establishment  of  an  Institute  of  Economic  and 
Social  Research. 

II.    Elementary  and  Secondary  Education 

1.  The  estabHshment  of  normal  schools  and  the  devel- 
opment of  normal  courses  in  middle  schools. 

2.  The  multiplication  of  junior  middle  schools. 

411 


412  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

3.  The  reorganization  of  middle  schools  On  the  six 
year  basis  and  an  increase  in  their  numbers. 

4.  The  development  of  middle  schools  of  the  agricul- 
tural and  industrial  arts  type. 

3.  The  opening  of  elementary  schools  in  unoccupied 
regions. 

III.    Higher  Education 

1.  The  completion  of  the  building  programs  of  insti- 
tutions having  no  permanent  plant:  Peking  University,  Ginling 
College,  Fukien  Christian  University. 

2.  The  founding  of  a  college  of  school  administration 
at  Nanking. 

3.  The  equipment  of  the  North  China  Union  Women's 
Medical  College  at  Tsinan. 

4.  The  establishment  of  a  school  of  commerce  and  in- 
dustrial organization  at  Shanghai. 

5.  The  completion  of  the  medical  school  at  Tsinan. 

6.  The  foundation  and  equipment  of  the  East  China 
Union  Medical  School  at  Shanghai. 

7.  The  erection  of  buildings  approved  for  colleges  in 
East  China,  South  China,  West  China. 

8.  The  development  of  a  university  of  Central  China. 

9.  The  founding  of  a  school  of  public  opinion  (univer- 
sity extension),  at  Shanghai. 

10.  The  development  of  the  School  of  Medicine  of 
West  China. 

II.  The  erection  of  buildings  for  a  college  for  women 
of  Fukien  Christian  University  (if  proposition  recommended  is 
approved). 

12.  The  erection  of  buildings  for  a  college  for  women 
of  the  West  China  Union  University. 

13.  The  purchase  of  land  and  the  erection  of  buildings 
for  a  central  unit  of  the  University  of  East  China. 

718.    Although  it  is  beyond  the  province  of  the  Commission 
to  give  detailed  estimates,  yet  approximate  totals  have  been  at- 


RECOMMENDATIONS- -ORDER   OF   URGENCY  413 

tempted,  based  upon  careful  studies  of  actual  costs  and  itemized 
calculations  for  enlargement.  Allowance  has  been  made  for  in- 
come on  the  field  from  fees  and  other  forms  of  local  support,  this 
applying  especially  to  maintenance.  The  capital  outlay  and  main- 
tenance are  both  planned  roughly  for  a  period  of  ten  years  begin- 
ning with  1922.  These  totals  do  not  include  expenditures  which 
are  involved  in  the  normal  development  of  existing  work  but  pro- 
vide for  the  enlargements  recommended  in  this  report. 

The  Commission  estimates  that  in  order  to  carry  out  this 
program  of  advance,  it  will  require  a  capital  outlay  for  land  and 
buildings  of  $7,000,000,  gold,  and  when  the  plan  is  completed 
an  additional  annual  expenditure  for  maintenance  of  $1,000,000. 


I 


APPENDIX  I 

STATISTICAL  TABLES 
Table   I.    Christian   Elementary  and   Secondary   Schools 


SCHOOLS 

PROVINCE            i-"^"  J'^^^""  MiddleTotal 

Primary  Primary 

North   China 

Manchuria    225  39  16  280 

Chihli    316  44  24  384 

Shantung     942  142  40  1,124 

Shansi    139  26  7  172 

Sheusi    91  9  I  loi 

East  China 

Kiangsu     354  120  51  525 

Chekiang      283  53  19  355 

Anhwei     185  39  11  235 

Kiangsi 159  24  6  189 

Central  China 

Honan    257  45  10  312 

Hupeh     288  58  17  363 

Hunan     223  56  14  293 

FuKiEN      852  96  20  968 

South   China 

Kwangtung      ....  675  122  37  834 

Kwangsi     49  6  2  57 

West  China 

Kansu     18  4  . .  22 

Szechwan     408  59  15  482 

Kweichow    84  8  . .  92 

Yunnan      61  6  i  68 

Total      5,609  956  291  6,856 

Special  Adminis- 
trative Districts: 
Mongolia   and 

Sunkiang    30  6  . .  36 

Grand  Total..  5,639  962  291  6,892 

(From   the   Survey  Volume,   with  minor 


STUDENTS 

Lower 
Primary 

Higher 
Primary 

Middle 

Total 

6,18s 

895 

521 

7,601 

8,554 

3,i88 

1.953 

13.69s 

17,083 

2,782 

1,489 

21,354 

3,468 

50s 

267 

4,240 

1.949 

274 

23 

2,246 

11. 550 

5. 015 

3,323 

19,888 

7.872 

1,746 

974 

10,592 

4.318 

1,016 

270 

5.604 

3.814 

986 

265 

5.06s 

S.850 

982 

27s 

7.107 

8,049 

i!,i85 

852 

11,086 

6,432 

1,594 

659 

8,68s 

25.568 

4,612 

i.S'O 

31,690 

19,057 

4. 510 

1,929 

25.496 

1,262 

234 

17 

1,513 

423 

63 

486 

15.954 

1.835 

87s 

18,664 

1,609 

189 

1,798 

1.782 
150,779 

224 
32,835 

10 
15,212 

2,016 
198,826 

803  70  ..  873 

151.582      32,905       15,212       199,699 
corrections,  page  302.) 


415 


4i6 


APPENDICES 


TABLE  II 


SUMMARY  OF  CHRISTIAN  EDUCATION 

Kind    of    Institution                  Institutions  Students                  %  of  Total 

Kindergarten 139  4.324  2.01 

Lower    Primary    S.637  151.582  70.74 

Higher  Primary    962  32,899  15.35 

Middle    School    291  15.213  7-io 

Normal   48  612  .28 

College    16  2,017  .98 

Bible  School    100  2,659  '-24 

Theological     13  39^  -iS 

Law    I  27  .01 

Medical 10  563  .26 

Nurses'  Training   106  1,380  .64 

Schools  for  the  Blind 29  794  .37 

Schools  for  Deaf   Mutes    ....  5  60  .03 

Orphanages   25  1.733  -So 

Grand  Total    7.382  214,254 


TABLE  III 

SUMMARY  OF  GOVERNMENT  EDUCATION 


Kind    of    Institution  Institutions 

Lower    Primary     118,852 

Higher  Primary   7,862 

Middle    444 

Normal     211 

Industrial     2,166 

College    and    Professional     .  .  94 

Higher   Normal    10 

Total     129,639 


Students 

% 

of  Total 

3,700,604 

86.2 

386,358 

9.0 

69,770 

1.6 

27,905"^ 

81,814 

2.5 

25,373°] 

.6 

2,3S7_^ 

4,294,181 

APPENDIX  11. 


FINDINGS  OF  THE  SEVENTH  ANNUAL  MEETING  OF 

THE  NATIONAL  ASSOCIATED  EDUCATIONAL 

ASSOCIATIONS  (CHINESE) 


The  National  Associated  Educational  Associations  met  on  Octo- 
ber 27,  1921,  in  Canton.  Thirty-five  representatives  were  present.  A  radical 
change  in  the  educational  system  was  recommended. 


APPENDICES  417 


Guiding  Principles 

The  six  principles  that  guided  the  representatives  in  deciding  on 
the  new  system  are : 

(a)  To  be  in  accordance  with  the  republican  form  of  govern- 
ment and  to  develop  the  spirit  of  democratic  education ; 

(b)  To  be  in  harmony  with  the  requirements  of  social  evo- 
lution ; 

(c)  To  develop  the  individuality  of  the  youths  and  to  allow 
them  freedom  of  choice ; 

(d)  To  pay  attention  to  the  financial  ability  of  the  people; 

(e)  To  allow  room  for  alteration  in  the  different  localities; 

(f)  To  aim  at  the  facility  for  widespread  education. 

Features  of  the  New  System 

1.  The  whole  system  is  divided  into  three  periods,  Primary 
Education,   Secondary  Education,  and  Higher  Education. 

2.  The  division  into  periods  is  made  according  to  the  physical 
and  mental  developments  of  the  children ;  i.  e.,  the  period  for  Primary 
Education  extends  from  six  to  twelve  years  of  age,  that  for  Secondary 
Education,  from  twelve  to  eighteen,  and  that  for  Higher  Education,  from 
eighteen  to  twenty- four. 

3.  In  view  of  the  extensiveness  of  the  country  and  differences 
in  local  conditions  and  requirements,  the  system  has  provided  for  flexibility 
in  establishing  schools  and  courses. 

4.  Education  must  center  'upon  the  children  themselves,  there- 
fore in  an  educational  system  the  individuality  and  the  intellectual  capacity 
of  the  children  must  be  taken  into  consideration;  hence  in  this  system, 
higher  and  secondary  education  employ  the  elective  method  in  determining 
their  curriculum,  and  in  primary  education  an  elastic  method  has  also 
been  provided  in  connection  with  the  promotion  from  class  to  class. 

The  Primary  Education   Period 

1.  The  primary  schools  are  established  with  the  view  of  extend- 
ing popular  education  and  training  for  citizenship,  and  not  merely  as  a 
preparation  for  secondary  education. 

2.  The  divisions  into  higher  primary  and  lower  primary,  will 
be  discarded,  and  hereafter  the  primary  schools  will  take  the  form  of  a 
single  grade. 

3.  The  length  of  primary  education  is  six  years,  from  six 
years  of  age  to  twelve;  but  it  may  be  divided  into  two  sections,  the  first 
four  years,  and  the  second  two  years.     Those  who  prefer  to  establish  a 


4i8  APPENDICES 

school  giving  instruction  only  in  the  first  section  may  be  allowed  to  rlo  so. 

4.  In  the  curriculum  of  the  primary  school,  after  the  fourth 
school  year,  according  to  local  conditions,  special  courses  for  preparation 
for  vocation  may  be  added. 

5.  Compulsory  education  is  temporarily  fixed  to  be  four  years. 
The  different  provinces  and  special  districts,  however,  must  prolong  this 
period  after  it  has  been  well  spread. 

6.  The  school  age  for  compulsory  education  may  be  determined 
by  the  diflferent  provinces  and  districts  themselves,  according  to  local 
conditions. 

7.  The  Kindergarten  is  to  receive  children  under  six  years 
of  age. 

8.  Continuation  schools  (or  make-up  schools)  must  be  pro- 
vided for  those  who  have  not  been  able  to  receive  proper  education  in 
their  early  age. 

The  Secondary  Education  Period 

1.  This  section  of  secondary  education  may  be  provided  by  one 
school  from  beginning  to  end,  or  by  several  schools  together. 

2.  This  section  of  secondary  education  may  be  provided  in 
part,  if  in  any  secondary  school  district  the  local  financial  condition  does 
not  allow  the  complete  provision  of  the  entire  section. 

3.  The  elective  system  is  to  be  employed  in  the  secondary 
education. 

4.  The  amount  of  requirements  for  vocational  training  or 
common  knowledge  is  diflferent  with  diflferent  subjects.  The  elective  sys- 
tem does  not  draw  a  sharp  line  in  the  relation  between  ordinary  and  voca- 
tional courses.  In  this  system,  the  secondary  schools  are  divided  into  two 
sections  of  three  years  each  with  the  third  year  of  the  first  section  as  a 
brief  intermediate  stopping  point  in  the  whole  section,  both  for  the  sake 
of  convenience  in  teaching  and  for  the  natural  division  in  the  children's 
physical  and  mental  development.  Those  courses  which  are  more  con- 
venient to  be  divided  into  tw'O  sections  of  four  and  two  years  or  of  two 
and  four  years  may  be  so  divided  according  to  circumstances. 

5.  The  higher  and  lower  secondary  course  may  be  provided 
by  two  schools  separately. 

The  Higher  Education  Period 

1.  Universities  are  named  in  opposition  to  primary  schools.  A 
university  with  only  a  single  course  may  also  be  called  one ;  and  not 
necessarily  a  university  with  a  combination  of  certain  courses  may  then 
be  so  called. 

2.  University  education  is  to  extend  from  four  to  six  years 
according  to  the  nature  of  the  courses. 


APPENDICES  419 

3.  The  university  will  have  no  preparatory  course ;  candidates 
for  a  university  education  must  be  graduates  of  the  higher  secondary 
schools,  or  with  the  corresponding  qualifications. 

4.  The  students  of  a  university  must  at  least  learn  two  for- 
eign languages. 

5.  The  graduates  from  a  university  may  enter  the  university 
research  course ;  the  length  of  this  course  is  not  fixed. 

6.  Universities  may  provide  special  courses.  Persons  who  wish 
to  investigate  any  special  subject  may  join  these  courses.  The  number  of 
years  is  not  fixed. 

7.  College  education  is  to  extend  from  three  to  four  years. 
Graduates  from  colleges  will  receive  the  same  treatment  as  a  four-year 
graduate  of  a  university. 

8.  The  colleges  will  have  no  preparatory  course.  Qualifications 
for  entrance  will  be  the  same  as  that  of  the  university. 

Normal  Education 

1.  The  normal  secondary  schools  will  cover  six  years,  the 
first  three  years  consisting  of  ordinary  courses,  and  the  second  three 
years,  of  normal  courses. 

2.  The  normal  secondary  schools  may  provide  for  six  years 
of  entirely  normal  courses.  They  may  also  provide  three  years  normal 
courses  for  lower  secondary  graduates.  Ordinary  secondary  schools, 
which  are  able  to  provide  also  normal  courses,  may  be  allowed  to  do  so. 

3.  Higher  normal  colleges  will  be  of  four  years.  The  quali- 
fications for  entrance  are  the  same  as  those  of  the  university. 

4.  The  graduates  of  the  higher  normal  may  enter  the  university 
research  course. 

5.  Universities  may  provide  for  higher  normal  courses.  The 
higher  normal  colleges  will  continue  to  be  independent 

6.  In  beginning  to  promote  compulsory  education,  normal  lectur- 
ing halls  may  be  provided  according  to  local  requirements. 

7.  In  order  to  promote  vocational  training,  special  courses  for 
training  vocational  teachers  may  be  provided  in  the  vocational  courses  of 
the  higher  secondary  schools. 


INDEX 


Adult  Education,  409-418,  454,  455;  im- 
portance of,  409;  goal  of,  410;  oppor- 
tunities of,  410;  problems  of,  411; 
Chinese  government  activity  in,  412; 
Christian  share  in  uncoordinated,  412; 
methods  of,  413;  two  great  objectives 
of,  413;  university  extension  contribu- 
tion to,  416;  proper  organization  of, 
418. 

Agricultural  and  Industrial  Schools,  713, 
717- 

Agricultural  Colleges:  where  located  at 
present,  342;  ideal  location  of,  355, 
356;  their  specific  task,  357;  the  range 
of  the  curriculum,  3371  research  and 
experiment  service,  358;  extension 
service,  359;   cost  of,  680. 

Agricultural  Education,  342-369,  717;  his- 
tory of,  342;  statistics  of,  in  China, 
343;  need  of,  345,  346;  relation  to 
needs  of  Christian  Church,  347-350; 
scope  of,  351;  results  to  be  gained  by, 
352;  comprehensive  program  of,  353- 
367;  work  of  graduates,  356;  ultimate 
results  to  be  hoped  for,  361,  362; 
education  of  girls  and  women  in,  363; 
community  Sunday-schools,  364;  its 
value  in  cultural  training,  365;  the 
training  of  agricultural  missionaries, 
366;  cooperation  with  the  government, 
368;  principal  objectives  of,  369; 
schools  needed,  713,  717. 

Agricultural  Middle  School,  360;  its  great 
importance  in  promoting  the  Christian 
occupation  of  China,  360;  Hampton 
suggests  its  type,  360. 

Agricultural  Missionaries:  how  trained, 
366. 

Agricultural  Missions:  argument  for,  344- 
346. 

American  Institute  of  Sacred  Literatur«, 
578. 

Architecture  of  School  Buildings,  579,  580; 
progress  in  adaption  to  Chinese  needs, 
579;  architecture  as  a  part  of  the 
college  curriculum,  580. 


Association  of  Christian  Colleges  and  Uni- 
versities, 212,  213,  224,  567. 

Bible  Schools  for  Men,  706;  their  variety, 
269;  their  specific  task,  285;  reduction 
of  their  number  desirable,  286;  their 
relation  to  religious  education  in  the 
home,  497;  recommendations  concern- 
ing,   637. 

Bible  Training  Schools  for  Women,  271; 
number  and  quality  of,  287;  grades 
of,  288;  training  of  social  workers  in, 
292. 

Bible  Women:  their  usefulness  in  com- 
munity evangelization,   492. 

Boards  of  Christian  Education:  their  terri- 
torial range  provincial,  107;  their 
organization,  107;  their  functions, 
108;  their  function  in  relation  to 
elementary  education,  148,   149. 

Boone  University  at  Wuchang,  219,  576, 
577;  its  library  training  course,  576; 
its    extension    service,    577. 

Boys'  Middle  School;  relative  economy  of, 
676;  types  of,  162  166. 

Boy   Scouts,    505. 

British  Chambers  of  Commerce  in  China: 
proposal  for  subsidizing  secondary 
schools,    549. 

Business  Training:  in  the  boys'  middle 
school,    166. 

Canton,  328;  medical  history  of,  328; 
recommendations  against  medical  work 
in,  328. 

Canton  Christian  College,  660;  recommen- 
dations concerning,  222,  328;  college 
of  agriculture  at,  342,  356;  coeduca- 
tional, 433;  department  of  commerce 
and   social   science,    703. 

Central  Boarding  Elementary  Schools,  134. 

Central  China,  219,  220,  641,  649-652; 
recommendations  regarding  higher  edu- 
cation in,  2ig,  652;  the  program  of 
its  development,  220;  agricultural 
development    in,    335;    need    for    an 


422 


INDEX 


agricultural  middle  school,  360;  med- 
ical school  in,  323,  324,  296. 

Central  China  Union  (Federated)  Univer- 
sity,   219,    707. 

Certificates  for  Teachers,  245. 

Changsha  (Yale-in-China),  219,  323;  future 
adjustment  of  medical  work  at,  324; 
coeducational  in  pre-medical  course, 
433- 

Chengtu:  West  China  Union  University, 
220,  322. 

China:  political  condition  to-day,  19;  new 
life  of,  115;  Christianity's  opportunity 
in,  116;  its  challenge  to  the  West,  118. 

China  Christian  Educational  Association, 
112,  193,  212,  231,  245,  344>  601,  666, 
686,  708,  717;  its  four  departments, 
1 12;  department  of  middle  schools,  193; 
its  department  of  higher  education,  212; 
to  give  degrees,  243;  resolution  re- 
garding its  promotion  of  agricultural 
missions,  344;  Council  of  Adult  Edu- 
cation, 418;  Council  of  Agricultural 
Education,   367. 

China  Educational  Commission:  its  organi- 
zation, 1-6;  contributions  to  its  budget, 
6;  its  personnel,  7;  its  itinerary,  10- 
13;  its  instructions,  14,  15;  its  policy, 
16. 

China  Medical  Board,  301,  320,  331. 

China  Medical  Commission  of  the  Rocke- 
feller Foundation,  294,  308,  325,  327, 
329,  334- 

China   Mission   Year   Book,    344. 

China  Missionary  Medical  Association,  en. 

Chinese  People:  their  profound  interest  in 
education,  20;  finer  characteristics  of, 
71;  characteristics  which  hinder  theif 
progress,  72;  religious  characteristics 
of,    72;   defects  of   family   life,    72. 

Chinese  Language:  unification  and  nation- 
alization of,   558. 

Christian  College:  cost  of,  680,  681-683. 

Christian  Community:  what  it  demands 
from   education,   93. 

Christian  Education  in  China:  definition 
of,  17;  standards  of,  22;  need  of 
being  thoroughly  indigenous,  25 ;  its 
peculiar  importance,  24,  48;  history 
of  Protestant  activity,  43-48;  history 
of  Roman  Catholic  activity,  49-39; 
Brown,  R.  S.,  founder  of  first  Protes- 
tant Christian  school,  43;  statistics  of, 
46;   limitations  of,  66-86;  permanence 


of,  68-76;  necessity  for  developing, 
69;  aims  of,  75,  78,  93;  eventually  to 
be  wholly  Chinese,  76;  its  specific  and 
immediate  task,  77-83;  its  great  ob- 
jective— the  development  of  a  strong 
Christian  community,  81,  594;  the 
scope  of,  84-100,  583;  the  breadth  of,  J 
8s;  a  cooperative  task,  101,  102; 
factors  in  further  development  of, 
104;  its  great  opportunities  to-day, 
117;  aims  of,  582-584;  spirit  of,  382, 
583;  control  of,  584;  permanence  of, 
589;  adaption  of,  to  China,  590;  share 
of  Chinese  in  control,  591;  Institute 
of  Educational  Research,  392;  Insti- 
tute of  Economic  and  Social  Research, 
592;  coeducational  training,  598;  co- 
operation with  government  education, 
399;  standardization  of  schools,  602; 
opportunities  of  extension,  603 ;  its 
four-fold  distinctive  contribution,  617; 
its  thorough  coordination  necessary, 
618;  its  adequate  support,  620-622; 
cost  of,  669 ;  obstacles  to  economical 
management,  684 ;  methods  of  proper 
institutional  bookkeeping,   686. 

Christian  Education:  aims  of,  66;  its 
insistence  on  intellectual  freedom,  95; 
quality  to  be  preferred  to  quantity, 
97;  organization  of,  101-114;  National 
Board  of,  112;  four  conditions  of 
highest  efficiency,  226. 

Christian  Institute  of  Economic  Research, 
416. 

Christian  Schools:  conditions  of  public 
approval,  70;  standards  of,  93. 

Christian  Schools  for  Girls:  compared  with 
similar  government  schools,  424;  the 
problem  of  teachers,  433;  the  problem 
of  adequate  equipment,  436;  the  ham- 
pering influence  of  Chinese  conser- 
vatism, 437;  scanty  resources,  437; 
a  cooperative  development  desirable, 
438;  government  attention  to,  434. 

Christian  University  for  East  China: 
Union  Medical  School  of,  218,  329- 
333;  should  be  open  to  women,  339; 
federated  organization  probable,  216, 
217;  component  members  of,  218; 
organization  of,  218;  departments  of 
instruction  in,  2:8;  law  school  planned, 
384. 

Church,  Christian,  in  China;  in  the  hands 
of  older  laymen,   552;   requires  energy 


INDEX 


423 


and    initiative   of    younger    men,    552; 
methods  of  attracting  such,  553. 

Civilization  of  the  West:  how  harmful  to 
China,    73;    what    it    should   contribute 

•     to  Chinese  nationalism,  74. 

Coeducation  in  China,  129,  145,  456;  in 
college  work,  433,  434,  446,  451,  458; 
in  elementary  training,  129,  437;  in 
middle  school  work,  457. 

College  Entrance  Board:  its  function  and 
organization,   210,  224. 

Colleges  (Christian):  their  aims,  194; 
their  distribution  in  China,  195; 
modeled  after  Western  type,  196; 
rivalled  by  government  colleges,  196; 
opportunity  of,  197;  standard  size  of, 
198;  weaknesses  of,  from  Chinese 
point  of  view,  200;  religious  instruc- 
tion in,  201;  how  related  to  primary, 
elementary,  and  middle  schools,  204; 
division  into  junior  and  senior  col- 
leges, 204,  609;  recommendations  re- 
garding curricula,  204;  research 
work  in,  inadvisable,  205 ;  research 
fellowships  for  graduates,  205;  pro- 
fessional courses  in,  206,  6og;  their 
cooperative  organization,  210;  sur- 
passing importance  of,  224;  future 
policy   regarding,   608. 

Colleges  of  Education:  conditions  of  effi- 
ciency, 241;  number  proposed,  242; 
varied  demands  upon,  244;  intended  to 
train  teachers  for  middle  schools,  244; 
colleges  of  senior  and  junior  grade 
desirable,  242,  243;  available  for 
training  principals  where  necessary, 
250;  needed  for  training  women  as 
teachers,   446. 

College  of  Agriculture,  356-359;  its  cost, 
680. 

Colleges  for  Women:  their  task  to  train 
Christian  workers  as  well  as  teachers 
288;  the  founding  of  Yenching,  Gin 
ling,  and  South  China  collegegj  432 
their  demand  for  highly  trained 
Chinese  women  as  teachers,  439;  re 
quire  strengthening  rather  than  multi 
plication,   458. 

College  of  School  Administration,  247-249 
conditions  of  entrance,  247 ;  curricu 
lum,  247;  affiliated  practice  schools 
248;  intended  especially  for  the  train 
ing  of  principals  and  supervisors 
247-250. 


Colleges  of  Theology:  cost  of,  680;  kinds 
of,  269,  270;  cooperation  in  developing, 
272;  enrolment,  273;  requirements  for 
admission  to,  278;  should  be  related 
to  a  university  plan,  280;  number 
limited,  2S3;  qualifications  of  faculty, 
284;  student  aid  in,  289;  responsibility 
for  religious  education,  497. 

Collegiate    Education,    194-224. 

Community  Development,  615,  616. 

Community  Sunday-Schools,  364. 

Conference  on  Christian  Ethics,  Economics, 
and  Citizenship  of  Great  Britain,  370. 

Conservation  of  Christian  Personalities  in 
the  Church,  551-553- 

Continuation  Schools,  414,  504. 

Cooperation  Among  Denominations:  in 
middle  schools,    179. 

Cooperation  in  Christian  Education,  Inter- 
national, 546-550;  principles  under- 
lying, 546;  adjustments  necessary,  547; 
the  differences  in  national  educa- 
tional methods  and  ideals,  548;  fed- 
erated scheme  of  union  most  desir- 
able, 549. 

Cost  of  Schools,  668-689;  basis  of  com- 
putation, 671,  680;  higher  primary, 
672,  678;  middle  schools,  673,  677; 
boys'  middle  schools,  673;  girls'  middle 
schools,  673,  677;  salaries  of  teachers, 
679;  summaries,  676;  girls'  schools 
cost   more,   676. 

Council  of  Adult  Education:  its  personnel, 
418. 

Council   of   Agricultural   Education,   367. 

Council  of   Health   Education,   317,   512. 

Directors  of    Education,   604. 

District    School     Board:     its    purpose    and 

functions,    151. 
Domestic    Science    in    China :    questions    to 

be  studied,   440. 

East  China,  641,  645,  646;  recommenda- 
tions regarding  higher  education  in, 
216-218,  648;  agricultural  develop- 
ment in,  355;  recommendations  con- 
cerning normal   schools  in,  647. 

East  China  Union  University,  333. 

Economic  and  Social  Research,  Institute 
of  {see  Institute  of  Economic  and 
Social    Research). 

Economy  in  Christian  Education:  obstacles 
to,   684. 

Education:     the    supreme    significance    of. 


424 


INDEX 


74;  religious  (see  Religious  Educa- 
tion); special  problems  of,  528-580. 

Education,    Adult    {see   Adult    Education). 

Education  for  Social  Workers,  292. 

Education  in  China:  new  efficient  system 
demanded,  20;  government  schools 
progressing  in  efficiency,  21;  begin- 
ning of  a  complete  modernization,  27; 
statistics  of,  38;  based  on  Japanese 
system,  39;  new  scheme  proposed, 
40,  41 ;  government  and  mission  schools 
compared,  49;  attitude  of  Chinese 
people  toward,  70;  rapid  development 
of,   in   resources   and   quality,   76. 

Education  in  the  Social  Application  of 
Christianity,  370-377;  importance  of, 
370-371;  conditions  of  success,  372; 
how  made  effective,  376;  methods  of 
organized  research,  377. 

Education  of  Women,  419-458,  454,  455; 
education  in  ancient  China,  420;  his- 
tory of  beginnings  of  modern  educa- 
tion, 421-423;  proportion  of  girls  and 
boys  in  Christian  schools,  425 ;  impor- 
tance of  the  middle  school,  426;  ideals 
of  the  government,  423 ;  self-support, 
427;  teacher  training,  288,  430,  439; 
physical  training  school  at  Shanghai, 
431;  education  of  adults,  454,  455; 
colleges  for  women  in   China,   432. 

Education  of  Writers,  498-500;  the  literary 
revolution  in  China,  499;  literature  of 
unusual  importance  in  China,  498;  a 
school  of  literature  greatly  needed, 
500;  problem  of  producing  books,  561. 

Education,    Special    Problems   of,    528-580. 

Eaucational  Missionaries:  qualifications  of, 
537;  demanding  a  jury  of  experts, 
536;  training  of,  538;  where  to  be 
found,  539;  policy  of  provisional  ap- 
pointment of,  540;  future,  after  years 
of  service,  545 ;  mastery  of  Chinese 
language,  559. 

Educational   Policies  in  Japan,   69. 

Educational  Reform  Society,  42. 

Educational  Research:  Institute  of,  100 
{see  Institute  for  Educational  Re- 
search). 

Education  of  Non-Chinese:  by  Roman 
Catholics,    58. 

Educational  Work  of  the  Christian  Asso- 
ciations, S01-510;  Young  Men's  Chris- 
tian Association,  symbol  of,  501; 
Young  Women's  Christian  Association, 


symbol  of,  501;  its  general  scope  and 
purpose,  501;  training  of  physical 
directors,  and  recreation  leaders,  so^I 
share  in  health  education,  503;  contri- 
bution to  general  education,  504; 
supplementary  educational  work,  505; 
methods  for  moulding  public  opinion, 
504;  religious  education,  507-510; 
work  among  students  in  non-Christian 
schools,  507;  national  students'  con- 
ferences, 509;  literature,  sio. 

Educated  Women  in  China :  their  varied 
opportunities,  441-443;  organizations 
of,  444;  importance  of,  445;  tasks  to 
be  undertaken  by,   446-453. 

Efficiency  in  Education:  four  conditions  of, 
226. 

Elementary  Education:  purpose  of,  31; 
responsibility  for  establishing,  31; 
general  treatment  of,  1 19-155,  629- 
632;  statistics  of,  123;  special  needs 
for  Christian  schools,  124;  school 
buildings,  135;  character  and  training 
of  teachers,  141-143;  objectives  of, 
136;  details  of  the  curriculum,  137; 
plan  of  organization  for,  147;  regional 
recommendations  regarding,  629-632, 
642,  645,  649,  653,  657;  in  West 
China,  662 ;  need  of  model  schools, 
695.  701;  new  schools,  711;  cost  of, 
672-674. 

Elementary  Schools:  necessity  of,  120; 
proper  control  of,  121;  standards  of 
such  schools,   125. 

Elementary  Schools  (Christian)  number  and 
distribution  of,  126;  proportion  of  suc- 
cess in,  128;  failure  to  hold  all 
children,  127;  coeducation  in,  129 
and  14s;  wise  distribution  of,  130; 
types  of,  134;  school  buildings,  133; 
objectives  of,  136;  curriculum  of,  137; 
religious  education  in,  138;  occupa- 
tional training  in,  139;  hygienic  con- 
ditions in,  140;  health  training  in, 
140;  training  of  teachers,  141-143,  605; 
plan  of  organization  for,  147;  financ- 
ing of,  152-153;  proper  supervision  of, 
144-145;  cultivation  of  the  love  of 
reading  in,  573-575;  recommendations 
regarding  provincial  and  district  or- 
ganization, 629-632;  cost  of,  670,  672, 
676;   model  schools,  693. 

Engineering  Schools:  arrangement  for 
establishing,  402-405. 


INDEX 


425 


Exchange  Lectureships,   626. 
Extension   Teaching,    707. 

Fellowships  for  Research  for  College 
Graduates,  205. 

First  Schools  for  Girls  in  China,  421; 
courses  of  study,  421;  Chinese  private 
schools  for  girls,  422. 

Foochow:   Union  Medical  College,  327. 

Forestry:  School  of,  for  all  China,  356; 
courses  in  forestry  offered  at  Yale  in 
China,  343. 

Fukien:  Christian  University,  218,  656, 
717;  agricultural  development  in,  355; 
need  for  an  agricultural  middle  school, 
360;  recommendations  concerning  edu- 
cation  in,   641,   653-656. 

Furlough  Study  by  Missionaries,  541. 

Ginling  College  for  Women  (Nanking) : 
opened  in  1915,  432;  its  degree,  432; 
enrolment,  433;  should  become  a  part 
of  the  proposed  University  for  East 
China,  218,  648;  its  building  program 
approved,  717. 

Girl   Reserves,   505. 

Government  Education  in  China,  25-42; 
organization  of,  29;  statistics,  38, 
730;  cooperation  of  Christian  forces 
with,  desirable,  87,  105,  125;  grants- 
in-aid  to  Christian  schools,  89;  its 
standard   educational   program,    105. 

Government  Grants  for  Education,  89; 
for   elementary   schools,    125. 

Government  Schools  for  Girls,  623;  com- 
pared with  Christian  Schools,  424; 
statistics  of,  434. 

Grants-in-Aid  Government:  Conditions  of 
acceptance,   89. 

Guilds  in  China,  379;  their  power  to 
punish,  379;  their  power  of  social 
control,   391. 

Hackett  Medical   School  for  Women,   328, 

334.    339- 
Hampton    Institute,    Va. :    a    type    of    the 

agricultural  middle  school,  360. 
Hangchow   Christian    College,   218,    648. 
Harvard   Medical    School   of    China,    331. 
Higher   Educational    Senate:    functions   of, 

no,    210-220. 
Higher   Educational    Work:    six   areas   of, 

III,    224,    619,   665;    history   of,    194- 

195;    principles    which    should    govern 


future  development,  204;  recommen- 
dations concerning,  638640,  648,  652, 
656,   660,   665;   costs  of,   675. 

Higher  Normal  Schor.l  for  Women: 
Peking,  439. 

Hongkong  University:  its  proposed  rela- 
tionship to  the  British  Mission  sec- 
ondary schools  in  China,  549,  550; 
discussion  of  this  relationship,  549. 

Hongkong  University  School  of  Medicine, 
328. 

Hospitals  in  China:  their  number,  299; 
their  work  of  training,  299,  312-317; 
their  varied  character  and  equipment, 
300;  training  of  nurses  at,  314,  315; 
policy  regarding  hospitals  under  mis- 
sion  management   in  the   future,   613. 

Incorporated  University  for  East  China, 
648. 

Industrial  Education,  713,  717;  purpose 
of,  36;  ably  promoted  by  Roman  Cath- 
olics, 57;  importance  of,  96;  place  of, 
in  religious   education,   614. 

Industrial  Education  and  Engineering, 
387-408;  place  of,  in  Christian  educa- 
tion, 387-389;  agencies  for  bettering 
the  industrial  system,  389-393;  in 
middle  schools,  159,  166,  399;  signifi- 
cance of,  400. 

Industrialism  in  China:  its  rapid  develop- 
ment, 166;  relations  with  the  Chris- 
tian church,  166,  387-408;  industrial 
fellowship  at   Shanghai,   377. 

Institute  for  Educational  Research,  100, 
251-358,  497,   667,   689,   709,    717- 

Institute  of  Economic  and  Social  Re- 
search,  377,   555,   709,   717. 

International  Cooperation  in  Christian 
Education,  546-550;  {see  Cooperation 
in    Christian    Education). 

Internship    in    Hospitals,    313. 

Japan :  Educational  Policy  of  the  Govern- 
ment in,  69. 

Junior  College  of  Education,  243,  244; 
available  for  the  training  of  primary 
supervisors,   250. 

Junior  Middle  Schools,  634,  698,  704,  715, 
717- 

Kindergartens:  opportunity  of,  133;  need 
for,    133. 

Labor  Movement  in  China,  417. 


426 


INDEX 


Language  Problem  in  Education,  558-562; 
the  educational  missionary's  mastery 
of  Chinese,  559;  cultural  and  prac- 
tical values  of  English,  560;  de- 
sirableness of  bilingual  usage,  560; 
need  of  special  text  books,  561;  the 
new    "national    language,"    562. 

Law  and  Political  Science:  education  in, 
378-386,    614. 

Law,  Chinese:  how  different  from  that  of 
Europe  and  America,  378. 

Legal  Procedure  in  China:  peculiarities 
of,    378-385.. 

Librarian:  training  of,  576;  course  offered 
at    Boone    University,    576. 

Library    Budget,    575. 

Libraries,  School  and  College,  572-578; 
importance  for  all  educational  institu- 
tions, 572;  equipment  of,  573;  provi- 
sions for  reference  books,  564;  ex- 
change of  books,  575;  proper  library 
budget,  575;  the  training  of  librarians, 
576;   extension  work,   577. 

Local  School  Board:  its  purpose  and  func- 
tions,  150. 

Medical  Education,  293-341,  610;  history 
of,  in  China,  293,  294;  remarkable 
development  of,  301,  318;  number  of 
medical  schools,  295;  location  of  medi- 
cal schools,  296;  enrollment,  297; 
equipment  of  medical  schools,  298; 
hospitals  in  China,  299,  300;  scope  of, 
305-307;  training  in  public  health, 
309-311;  future  policy  regarding  pre^ 
ventive  medicine,  309 ;  specific  recom- 
mendations for  each  region,  320-333, 
644,  665 ;  coeducation  desirable,  333, 
336,  338;  medical  colleges  for  women, 
334.  335 ;  schools  of  dentistry,  340, 
341;  cost  of  medical .  education,  613, 
676,   683. 

Medical  Missions  in  China:  beginnings 
of,  293;  proper  aims  of,  303,  304; 
present  day  expression  of,  in  China, 
299. 

Medical  School  of  Shantung  Christian 
University,  320,  321. 

Medical  Schools:  proper  number  of,  in 
China,  198;  number  of,  295;  loca- 
tion of,  29s,  296;  enrollment  of,  297; 
equipment  of,  298;  future  policy  re- 
garding, 613;  cost  of,  680,   683. 

Middle  Schools   (Christian),  643,  696,  702, 


717;  general  aim  of,  32;  supported 
by  each  province,  32 ;  insufficiently 
maintained  at  present,  32;  signal  im- 
portance of,  in  scheme  of  Christian 
education,  92,  156-158,  606;  compared 
with  colleges  and  universities,  158; 
organization  of,  158;  specific  aims  of, 
iS9i  183-189;  distribution  of,  160; 
curriculum,  161,  182-185,  types  of 
middle  schools  for  boys,  162-166;  the 
most  desirable  type,  168;  management 
of,  163;  coeducational  training  in, 
166;  sources  of  students,  166;  middle 
schools  for  girls,  174-178;  suitable 
training  for  girls,  175;  recommenda- 
tions regarding,  193,  606;  occupa- 
tional   courses   in,    705;    cost   of,   671. 

Middle  Schools  for  Girls,  174-178,  633; 
types,  to  be  developed,  178,  643;  cur- 
riculum of,  175-177;  teacher  training 
in,  176,  636;  plans  for,  633,  643, 
654,  658,  663,  712;  cost  of,  673,  677. 

Middle   School   of   Agriculture   360. 

Mills  Memorial  School  for  Deaf  Mutes: 
Chef 00,   518. 

Ministry  in  China:  need  of  a  thorough 
training  of  candidates,  274;  difficul- 
ties of  securing  high  grade  men,  275; 
better    compensation    essential,    276. 

Mission    Architectural    Bureau,    580. 

Missionary  Education,  65-67;  motives  com- 
pelling development,  65;  various  aims 
of,  66;  growing  Chinese  participation 
of  Chinese  church  in,  67. 

Missionary  Educators:  training  of,  263-. 
265. 

Missionary    Specialization,    540. 

Model    Schools:    elementary,    695. 

Modern  Missionary  Enterprise:  various 
motives  emphasized  by,  64;  place  of 
education   in,   65. 

Mothers'    Clubs,    455. 

Moukden:    medical    school    at,    325,    326. 

Moukden  Junior   College,   215. 

Nan    Kai    College:    Tientsin,    434. 

Nanking  Theological  Seminary,  218,  648. 

Nanking  L^^niversity :  College  of  Agricul 
ture  and  Forestry,  342,  356,  375,  640, 
648. 

National  Associated  Educational  Associa- 
tions: their  provision  for  a  new  sys- 
tem of  education  in  China,  39,  306; 
annual    meeting    of,    39,    42. 


INDEX 


42; 


National  Board  of  Christian  Education: 
how  organized,  112;  its  specific  duties, 
113.     566,    624. 

National  Christian  Conference  of  1922: 
interested   in   agriculture,    344. 

National  Christian  Student  Movement, 
508. 

Normal   Education:   types  of,  35. 

Normal  Middle  Schools,  167,  177,  236, 
237;  available  to  train  supervisors  un- 
familiar with  English,  250;  conditions 
of  efficiency,  236;  co-education  a  pos- 
sibility, 236;  their  number,  237;  train- 
ing of  girls  in,  176,  430;  normal 
courses    in    middle    schools,    697. 

Normal  Schools  for  Elementary  TeacherS) 
647.  651,  6ss.  659,  664,  703,  714, 
717;  conditions  of  efficiency,  #36; 
gradual  establishing  of,  236;  simplest 
form   of    these    schools,    239. 

Normal  Teaching:  in  middle  schools,  698, 
717. 

North  China,  641,  642;  recommendations 
regarding  higher  education  in,  215, 
644;  agricultural  development  in, 
355;  need  for  an  agricultural  middle 
school,  360;  recommendations  concern- 
ing   secondary   education   in,    643. 

North  China  Union  Medical  College  for 
Women,    334,    337,    644,    717. 

Nurses:    training  of,    314,    3:5. 

Occupational  Education:  a  part  of  the 
Christian  program,  93,  598;  in  ele- 
mentary schools,  139;  in  middle 
schools,  166,  170-172,  186,  63s,  705. 

Orphanages,   516. 

Pastor,  the  Chinese:  given  insufficient 
recognition  and  meagre  compensation, 
27s ;    training    need    for,    282. 

Peking    Academy,    643. 

Peking   National   University,   434. 

Peking    University    Junior    College,     215. 

Peking  Union  Medical  College,  294,  296, 
299,  30s,  320;  adapted  to  research 
work,  307,  37s;  its  pre-medical  school, 
305;    open    to    women,    336. 

Peking  University,  215,  434,  439;  agri- 
cultural experiment  station,  342;  im- 
portance of,  356;  school  of  litera- 
ture, 500;  school  of  literature,  707; 
building  program  of,  717. 

Pharmacy,    Schools   of,    308. 


Physical  and  Health  Education,  511-514; 
need  of  proper  attention  to  health  of 
students,  511;  equal  need  of  health 
education,  512;  methods  of  community 
service,  512;  importance  of  athletics, 
513;  education  of  physical  defectives, 
51S-518. 

Physical  Training  School  at  Shanghai, 
431- 

Pre-Medical  Education:  where  given,  305; 
scope  of,  305,  306;  share  of  medical 
schools     in,     306. 

Preparation  of  the  Educational  Missionary, 
528-545;  importance  of,  528;  failure 
to  insist  upon,  529;  professional  train- 
ing important,  531,  537;  educational 
leadership  passing  to  the  Chinese, 
532;  adequate  spiritual  equipment  es- 
sential, 533,  542;  allocation  of  spe- 
cific tasks  desirable,  534;  adequate 
general  training  essential,  535;  fur- 
lough studies,  541;  training  of  the 
educational  missionary,  538;  his  early 
training   on  the  field,   544,   559. 

Preventive  Medicine,  Training  in,   309. 

Primary  School  Teachers:  qualities  of  the 
good    teacher,    235. 

Privately  Supported  Education:  the  num- 
ber of  such  schools,  61,  62;  statistics 
of,  62;  Amoy  University,  62;  Nan 
Kai  College  at  Tientsin,  62;  signifi- 
cance of,   69. 

Professional  Education:  purpose  of,  34; 
varieties  of,  34,  610;  necessary  to 
Christian   program,    93;    610. 

Protestant  Christian  Education,  34-48;  ef- 
fect of  Boxer  Movement,  44;  com- 
pared with  Roman  Catholic  efforts, 
58;    statistics   of,   63. 

Provincial  Boards  of  Education,  107-110, 
J48,  151,  566,  624,  629,  692;  how 
created,    107;   secretaries  of,   693. 

Provincial    Education   Associations,    no. 

Provisional  Appointment  of  Educational 
Missionaries,   540. 

Public  Health  Education,  309-311;  as  a 
hospital    task,    317. 

Reading  Rooms:  their  importance  in  educa- 
tion,   573. 
Reference   Libraries,    574. 
Regional   Recommendations,   627-667. 
Regional   Surveys,    555. 
Regional   Universities,   685. 


4^8 


INDEX 


Rfiligious  Education:  strongly  emphasized 
by  Roman  Catholics,  56;  in  the  ele- 
mentary schools,  138;  in  Christian 
schools  for  girls,  177;  in  the  theologi- 
cal schools,  291,  459-497;  definition 
of,  459;  great  importance  of,  460,  461, 
473;  its  fundamental  purpose,  462; 
importance  as  an  educational  problem, 
463-465,  612;  fundamental  principles 
of,  466-469;  methods  of  character 
building,  470-472;  through  the  pulpit, 
474;  through  a  community  forum, 
475  i  week-day  religious  education, 
481-490;  through  the  Sunday- Schools, 
477,  482;  in  the  non-Christian  home, 
491-497;  requiring  earnest  and  ade- 
quate  consideration,    612. 

Religious  Education  in  the  Home:  need 
of  cultivation,  491;  given  largely  by 
Bible  Women,  402;  in  non-Christian 
homes,  492;  its  opportunity  in  the 
Christian  home,  493;  how  promoted, 
494-497. 

Religious  Training  of  the  Educational  Mis- 
sionary,  542. 

Research  in  Education:  research  fellow- 
ship for  college  graduates,  205;  defini- 
tion of,  554;  scope  of,  554;  undertaken 
by,  554;  Institute  of  Educational  Re- 
search, 100,  205,  251-258,  497,  555 ; 
Institute  of  Economic  and  Social  Re- 
search, 205,  377,  555;  organization  of, 
5S6. 

Research  Work:  in  medicine,  307. 

Roman  Catholic  Christian  Education: 
difficulty  of  classification,  49;  stress 
laid  upon  the  education  of  orphans, 
51;  wide  range  of,  52;  statistics  of, 
53.  54i  63;  importance  given  to 
religious  education,  53;  comparison 
with  Protestant  education,  58;  handi- 
caps of,  59. 

Rural  Education:  in  the  elementary 
schools,    353,    615. 

St.   John's    University,    218,    648;   medical 

school    of,    331,    332. 
Salaries     of     Chinese     Workers:     unduly 

low,    552. 
Salaries     of      Teachers:      foreign     college 

teachers,    675,    680;    Chinese  teachers, 

675.   680. 
School    Administration,    College    of,    247- 

249. 


School  Architecture,  579580.  (,See  Archi- 
tecture  of    School    Buildings.) 

Schools  of    Commerce    and    Industry,    614. 

Schools  for    Deaf-Mutes,    518. 

Schools  for  Foreign  Born  Children,  518- 
527;  their  number  and  location,  522, 
523- 

Schools  for   Teacher   Training,    604. 

Schools  for    the    Blind,    517. 

Science:    China's    need    of,    74. 

Secondary  Education,  156-193,  633-637, 
643,  646,  650,  654,  658,  663;  new 
schools,    712. 

Settlements,  Industrial:  where  desirable, 
377;    their    functions,    377. 

Shanghai,  329-333;  a  natural  medical  cen- 
ter, 329;  history  of  medical  work  in, 
331;  proposed  coeducational  medical 
school,  333,  339;  the  proposed  uni- 
versity, 648,  707,  717;  industrial  fel- 
lowship   established,    377. 

Shanghai  Baptist  College,  218;  coeduca- 
tional,   433. 

Shanghai  Training  School  for  Physical 
Directors    (Y.W.C.A),   88,   502,    514. 

Shanghai  University:  teaching  of  law  at, 
384,  648;  school  of  law  at,  384,  648, 
707;  school  of  public  opinion,  707; 
school  of  commerce,  707;  East  China 
Medical   School,   717. 

Shansi    Junior    College,    215. 

Shantung  Christian  University,  215;  its 
medical  school,  321,  336,  337;  training 
institute,    455. 

Short    Term    Missionaries,    540. 

Social    Service,    373. 

Social  Workers,  Education  for,  292.  {See 
Education  for   Social   Workers.) 

Sociological    Research :    its   field   in    China, 

375- 

Society  for  Promoting  Female  Education 
in   the    East,    421. 

Soochow  University,  218,  648. 

South  China,  432;  recommendations  con- 
cerning education  in,  641;   657-661. 

South   China   College,   Foochow,  432. 

Southeastern   University,    Nanking,   434. 

Special    Problems    of    Education,    528-580. 

Student  Aid:  principles  of,  289;  method 
of  applying,   290. 

Students  in  China:  why  lost  to  the  church, 
552. 

Students  for  the  Ministry:  the  wisest 
way  to  give  them  help,   289. 


I 


I 


INDEX 


429 


Student  Teachers  Volunteer  Movement,  234. 

Summary  of  Principles  and  Recommenda- 
tions,   581-626. 

Summer  School  for  Christian  Workers, 
S70. 

Summer  School    for    Preachers,    569. 

Summer  School  of  Education  for  Ad- 
vanced  Students,   565. 

Summer  Schools   for   Teachers  in   Service, 

567. 

Summer  Schools  and  Institutes,  563-371; 
difficulties  to  be  faced,  564;  summer 
schools  of  education,  565 ;  teachers' 
lo-day  institutes,  566;  college  summer 
courses,  567;  schools  for  Christian 
Workers,    569,    570. 

Sunday-Schools  in  China:  types  of,  477; 
limitations  of,  478,  479;  training  of 
adults,  480. 

Supervision  in  Education:  its  importance, 
260;  illustrated  in  Philippines,  260; 
for  elementary  schools,   711. 

Supervisors,   District,    151,   246,   694. 

Survey  of  Education  in  China:  proposed 
by  China  Christian  Educational  Asso- 
ciation, 3 ;  favored  by  Mission  Boards 
conducting   work   in   China,   4. 

Teachers :  recruited  largely  from  middle 
school  graduates,  166;  with  imperfect 
professional    training,   228. 

Teachers    College    of    Columbia,    565. 

Teachers  Institutes,   261,   566. 

Teacher  Training:  elementary  teachers, 
141-143,  228;  middle  school  teachers, 
229,  240-244;  government  provision 
for,  230;  training  of  supervisors,  231, 
246;  sentiment  against  professional 
training,  233;  conditions  to  be  met, 
234;  training  of  primary  teachers, 
235-239;  certificates  and  degrees,  245; 
in  girls'  middle  schools,  430;  aims  of, 
605,  644;  recommendations  concern- 
ing   teacher-training    schools,    636. 

Technicians,   Training  of,   316. 

Tests  and  Examinations:  British  and 
American  systems  compared,  548. 

"The   New    Education,"    562. 

Theological  Education,  266-293;  history 
of,  266-268;  various  types  of  schools 
for  men,  269,  270,  611;  number  of 
schools,  272;  enrolment,  273;  relation 
of  college  graduates  to  middle  school 
graduates,    273;    requirements  for   ad- 


mission to,  278;  university  setting  of, 
280;  appropriate  curriculum  of,  278- 
282;  theological  faculties,  281;  new 
institutions  not  needed,  283;  a  proper 
theological  organization,  284 ;  coeduca- 
tional, 288;  training  of  Christian 
workers,  291;  training  of  social  work- 
ers,   292. 

Theological  Seminaries:  of  the  Protestant 
churches,  268,  2J2;  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  church,  53,  55,  56;  their  re- 
lation to  religious  education  in  the 
home,  497;  their  place  in  higher 
education,  6io,  611,  644,  648,  665; 
their   relative  cost,   676,   680,   683. 

I'ientsin    Anglo-Chinese    College,    644. 

Tong,  T.  I.,  of  Shanghai  Baptist  College: 
his  work  for  illiteratss,  412. 

Town  and  City  Elementary  Schools,   134. 

Training    for    Citizenship,    373-375. 

Training  in  Religious  Education:  by  the 
Christian   Associations,    507-510. 

Training  School  for  Physical  Directors  at 
Shanghai,    88,    502. 

Tsinan   Institute:   great   value   oL   455. 

Tsinan:  Shantung  Christian  University, 
321;  medical  school  of  the  University, 
321,   337;  training  institute,  455. 

Union  College  for  Women  at  Peking,  432. 
Union   Language   Schools,   544. 
Union    Medical    College,    Foochow,    327. 
Union  Normal  School  for  Boys,  Wuchang, 

651. 
Union  Normal  School    for    Girls,    Canton, 

659- 

Union  Seminary  of   Hunan,  652. 

Universities,  Christian  (projected):  in 
general,  638-640;  for  North  China, 
644;  for  East  China,  648;  for  Central 
China,  652;  for  Fukien,  656;  for 
West  China,  665. 

Universities,  (government) :  opportunity 
of,    198. 

University:  Definition    of,    209. 

University  Education:  aim  of,  33;  courses 
offered,    33. 

University  Extension,    414,    416. 

University  of  Nanking,     218. 

University  of  Pennsylvania:  medical  work 
at  Shanghai,  331;  temporary  experi- 
ment at   Canton,   328. 

University  Tutorial  Class  Movement  in 
England,  409,  417. 


430 


INDEX 


Village  Elementary  Schools,  134;  their 
place  in  a  Christian  program  of  rural 
education,  353;  the  cost  of  eighty- 
seven  schools,  670;  their  relative  cost, 
676. 

Vocational  Guidance:  its  value,  94;  a 
suitable  task  at  present  for  the  Chris- 
tian Association,    505. 

I 

Week-Day  Schools  for  Religious  education, 
481-490;  course  of  study  in,  486;  ser- 
vice of  worship  in,  489;  voluntary 
Christian  service  of,  490. 

West  China,  Education  in:  finally  coopera- 
tive, 44;  cooperation  in  education  in 
higher  instruction,  45;  agricultural  de- 
velopment in,  355;  Union  University, 
220,  332;  recommendations  regarding 
education  in,  641,  662-663. 

West  China  Union  University,  220,  322, 
665,    707,    717. 

What  $10,000  Will  Do  in  Christian  Educa- 
tion,  676. 

Women's    Colleges:    cost    of,    680. 

World  Association  for  Adult  Education, 
409,    412. 

World   Student  Christian  Federation:   508. 


includes  four  enterprises,  323;  sup- 
ported by  Alumni  of  Yale  and  by 
Hunanese,  323;  possible  future  ad- 
justment of  medical  work  at,  324; 
forestry    courses    at,    342. 

Yenching  College  for  Women,  Peking, 
opened  in  1908,  432;  affiliated  in  1920 
with  Peking  University,  433;  enrol- 
ment,  433. 

Y'oung  Men's  Christian  Association:  influ- 
ence in  government  schools,  87;  educa- 
tional work  of,  104,  414,  455,  501, 
510;  social  activities  of,  373,  377; 
training  of  voluntary  workers,  490; 
leadership  in  health  education,  514; 
summer  conferences,    563. 

■\  cung  Women's  Christian  Association, 
377;  influence  in  government  schools, 
87;  training  school  for  physical  direc- 
tors, 88;  educational  work  of,  104, 
414.  455.  501-510;  social  activities  of, 
373;  the  training  of  secretaries,  453; 
training  of  voluntary  workers,  490; 
relation  to  religious  education  in  the 
home,  497;  leadership  in  health  educa- 
tion, 514;  training  of  physical  di- 
rectors, 513;  summer  conferences,  563. 


Yale-in-China,     Changsha,     219,     323;     co- 
educational in  pre-medical  course,  433; 


Zone   of    Safety   in   Educational   cost,   679. 


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